The 1920s in America were marked by growing divisions in society, including issues of alcohol prohibition, immigration, race, political ideology, and organized crime.
Causes and impacts of prohibition
The origins of prohibition
Prohibition was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages. It was introduced through the 18th Amendment, ratified in 1919, and came into effect in 1920 with the Volstead Act. The movement for prohibition had deep roots in American society, stretching back to the 19th century, and was driven by a mix of moral, religious, political, and economic factors.
Moral campaigns and religious influence: Groups such as the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the Anti-Saloon League were central to the temperance movement. They believed alcohol caused poverty, domestic abuse, and social disorder. Protestant religious values heavily supported the push for sobriety and moral reform.
World War I and anti-German sentiment: During the war, many breweries were owned by German Americans, leading to a rise in suspicion toward the alcohol industry. Drinking alcohol was seen as unpatriotic, and the war provided an opportunity to push prohibition as a patriotic duty.
Rural vs. urban divide: Rural Americans were generally more conservative and religious and supported prohibition. Urban areas, with larger immigrant populations and more liberal attitudes, were less supportive. Prohibition became a way for rural America to enforce its values on the cities.
Economic justifications: It was argued that banning alcohol would improve worker productivity and reduce crime and poverty, ultimately benefiting the economy. It was also thought that families would have more disposable income if breadwinners did not spend money on alcohol.
The effects of prohibition
Despite its intentions, prohibition had numerous unintended and negative consequences that deeply affected American society.
Explosion of organized crime: The demand for alcohol did not disappear. Instead, a massive illegal trade developed. Gangsters like Al Capone in Chicago made millions through bootlegging, the illegal distribution of alcohol. Criminal organizations gained power and used violence to control their territories.
Speakeasies and widespread lawbreaking: Illegal bars, or speakeasies, operated in secret and were often protected by corrupt law enforcement. By the mid-1920s, it was estimated that there were tens of thousands of speakeasies across the country, particularly in cities like New York.
Police corruption and bribery: Enforcement of prohibition laws proved almost impossible. Many police officers, judges, and politicians were bribed to ignore illegal alcohol activities. The system became riddled with corruption, and public respect for the law declined.
Dangerous homemade alcohol: In the absence of regulated production, people turned to homemade spirits (known as moonshine or bathtub gin). These could be poorly made and sometimes deadly, causing poisoning and death.
Loss of government tax revenue: Prior to prohibition, alcohol taxes had been a significant source of federal revenue. With legal sales banned, the government lost millions of dollars, contributing to financial problems during the later Great Depression.
Prohibition lasted until 1933, when it was repealed by the 21st Amendment, making it the only constitutional amendment ever to be fully repealed.
Organized crime and its expansion
The prohibition era became a golden age for organized crime. Criminal gangs filled the gap left by legal alcohol, creating a lucrative black market and establishing criminal empires.
Rise of gang leaders: The most infamous gangster of the time was Al Capone, whose empire in Chicago controlled speakeasies, brothels, and gambling dens. Capone was known for his brutality, and his gang used murder and intimidation to eliminate rivals.
Violent gang rivalries: Turf wars between competing gangs led to frequent violence. The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre in 1929 is one of the most notorious events, where seven members of a rival gang were executed by men believed to be working for Capone.
Public fascination and fear: Gangsters became both feared and glamorized. While some Americans admired them as symbols of rebellion and wealth, others saw them as threats to law and order.
Corruption and control: Organized crime networks bribed police, politicians, and judges to avoid prosecution and protect their operations. In some areas, gangsters effectively controlled local governments, undermining democracy and law enforcement.
Diversification of criminal activities: With their wealth and influence, crime organizations expanded beyond alcohol into other areas like prostitution, gambling, extortion, and racketeering. Organized crime became embedded in American urban life.
Although prohibition ended in 1933, the criminal structures built during the 1920s did not disappear and continued to influence American cities for decades.
Racial tensions and violence
The 1920s were a period of significant racial unrest in America. The economic, social, and political changes after World War I intensified divisions, especially between white Americans and African Americans.
The Great Migration: Between 1916 and 1930, over a million African Americans moved from the South to Northern cities in search of jobs and better living conditions. While this provided economic opportunities, it also led to competition and resentment among white workers, particularly in industrial cities.
Race riots: Tensions frequently erupted into violence. The Chicago Race Riot of 1919, triggered by the drowning of a Black teenager who drifted into a whites-only beach, resulted in 38 deaths and over 500 injuries. Riots also occurred in Washington D.C., St. Louis, and other cities.
Jim Crow laws and Southern discrimination: In the South, African Americans remained subject to Jim Crow laws, which enforced segregation in public spaces, schools, transportation, and more. Discrimination and voter suppression remained widespread, denying Black citizens full participation in American democracy.
Lynching and terror: Hundreds of African Americans were lynched during the decade, often with little or no legal consequence for the perpetrators. These acts of violence were used to instill fear and maintain white dominance.
Cultural responses: Organizations such as the NAACP fought for civil rights and legal protection for African Americans. Meanwhile, the Harlem Renaissance brought a flowering of Black culture in literature, music, and art, asserting Black identity in the face of racism.
Experiences of immigrants
Immigrants, especially from Southern and Eastern Europe, faced increasing hostility in 1920s America. This period saw a sharp rise in nativism—the belief that the country should be preserved for native-born, white Americans.
Nativism and fear
“100% Americanism”: A wave of nationalism swept the country, emphasizing cultural conformity and loyalty. Immigrants were expected to assimilate and abandon their languages and traditions.
Association with radical politics: Many immigrants held socialist or anarchist views, which alarmed mainstream Americans, particularly during the Red Scare. Immigrants were often viewed as threats to social order and democracy.
Religious prejudice: Many immigrants were Catholics, Jews, or Orthodox Christians, which clashed with the dominant Protestant identity of American society. Religious differences further deepened prejudice.
Immigration laws
Emergency Quota Act (1921): This act limited immigration to 3% of the number of residents from each country present in the U.S. as of the 1910 census, targeting Southern and Eastern Europeans.
Immigration Act (1924): This act further reduced the quota to 2% and based it on the 1890 census, effectively favoring immigrants from Western Europe while banning immigration from Asia entirely.
Impact on society: Immigrants were often forced into low-paying jobs and lived in poor, overcrowded neighborhoods. They were viewed with suspicion and had few legal protections against exploitation and discrimination.
The Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
The Ku Klux Klan, originally founded in the 1860s, was revived in the 1910s and reached its peak in the 1920s with around 4 to 5 million members nationwide.
Beliefs and targets
Racism and white supremacy: The KKK believed in maintaining white dominance in American society. Their primary targets were African Americans, whom they saw as inferior and a threat to white power.
Anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic: The new Klan also targeted Jews, Catholics, and immigrants. They argued that these groups were un-American and posed a danger to national unity.
Moral and cultural enforcement: The Klan claimed to uphold Christian and family values. They enforced prohibition and punished what they viewed as immoral behavior, sometimes through violent vigilantism.
Activities and influence
Public demonstrations and intimidation: Members marched openly in white robes and hoods, holding rallies, burning crosses, and intimidating minority communities.
Political power: In several states, especially in the South and Midwest, the Klan had enough influence to elect governors, senators, and judges. Klan-backed candidates used their positions to promote racist and discriminatory policies.
Decline: By the end of the decade, internal scandals, corruption, and public backlash reduced Klan membership significantly, though it never disappeared entirely.
The Red Scare
The Red Scare refers to the fear of communism and radical political movements that swept through the United States after World War I, especially from 1919 to 1920.
Causes
Russian Revolution (1917): The Bolshevik overthrow of the Russian government led many Americans to fear a similar communist uprising at home.
Labor unrest: A series of strikes across major industries in 1919, including steel and coal, were interpreted as signs of a possible revolution, especially since many union leaders were immigrants.
Anarchist violence: A wave of bombings in 1919, including one at the home of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, fueled panic and suspicion.
Government reaction
Palmer Raids: Under Palmer and a young J. Edgar Hoover, federal agents carried out mass arrests of suspected radicals. Thousands were detained, and hundreds of immigrants were deported.
Civil liberties violations: Many of those arrested were held without warrants, legal counsel, or fair trials. The widespread abuse of power led to the founding of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU).
Media hysteria: Newspapers amplified the threat, encouraging public fear and suspicion of foreigners and left-wing political activists.
The Red Scare deeply influenced American politics and laid the foundation for future anti-communist campaigns.
The Sacco and Vanzetti case
One of the most famous legal cases of the 1920s, the trial of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, became a symbol of the era’s prejudice and injustice.
The case
Sacco and Vanzetti were Italian immigrants and self-declared anarchists. In 1920, they were arrested for the robbery and murder of two men in Massachusetts during a payroll heist.
Despite questionable evidence, including unreliable eyewitness accounts and conflicting ballistic reports, they were found guilty in 1921.
Public response
The trial drew international attention and widespread protest. Critics argued that Sacco and Vanzetti were convicted not for their actions but for their political beliefs and immigrant background.
Intellectuals, activists, and foreign governments demanded their release. Protests were held in cities around the world.
Execution and legacy
Despite appeals and mounting pressure, the two men were executed by electric chair in 1927.
The case became a lasting symbol of injustice, xenophobia, and the fear-driven atmosphere of the 1920s in America.
In 1977, Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis issued a proclamation stating that Sacco and Vanzetti had not been given a fair trial, symbolically clearing their names.
This case underscored the dangers of mass hysteria, prejudice, and political intolerance in American society.
FAQ
The Ku Klux Klan's support expanded beyond the South in the 1920s due to a broader national wave of nativism, racism, and conservative values. While originally rooted in Southern white supremacy after the Civil War, the revived Klan adapted its message to appeal to wider American anxieties about rapid social change. In states like Indiana, Ohio, and Oregon, the Klan presented itself as a guardian of "Americanism," promoting traditional Protestant, white, and rural values against perceived threats from immigrants, Catholics, Jews, and African Americans. The post-war economic instability, urbanization, and the influx of immigrants led many to fear the erosion of established norms. The Klan capitalized on these fears, positioning itself as a patriotic, moral force. Its growth was also driven by professional marketing and recruitment tactics, including rallies, parades, and family-friendly events. At its peak, the Klan wielded political power in several northern states, demonstrating the national scope of intolerance during the 1920s.
Women were central to the temperance and prohibition movements in the United States, both before and during the 1920s. Many women viewed alcohol as a direct threat to family stability and moral order, linking it to domestic violence, poverty, and neglect. Groups like the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1874, were instrumental in pushing for prohibition and played a sustained advocacy role into the 20th century. The WCTU and similar organizations framed alcohol as a social evil that harmed women and children, using religious and moral rhetoric to gain support. During the Progressive Era and into the 1920s, women also gained political power through the 19th Amendment (1920), which gave them the right to vote, allowing them to further influence prohibition legislation. Female activists helped enforce prohibition by organizing raids on illegal bars and pressuring local authorities. While many women supported prohibition, some—especially younger, urban women—opposed it, reflecting divisions in female political identity.
The media played a powerful role in shaping public opinion during both the Red Scare and the Sacco and Vanzetti trial by amplifying fear and prejudice. During the Red Scare, newspapers often sensationalized reports of bombings, strikes, and anarchist activity, framing events as part of a widespread communist plot to overthrow the U.S. government. This fueled national paranoia and justified harsh government crackdowns, including the Palmer Raids. The press contributed to an atmosphere of fear, where anyone with radical political beliefs—particularly immigrants—was seen as a potential threat. In the Sacco and Vanzetti case, the media’s coverage was divided. Some outlets portrayed them as dangerous anarchists and reinforced anti-immigrant stereotypes, while others, especially in the international press, focused on the lack of evidence and the unfairness of the trial. Public opinion was deeply polarized, but the extensive media attention turned the case into a global symbol of American injustice and xenophobia, increasing its historical importance.
Prohibition had a profound and largely negative impact on American law enforcement during the 1920s. The federal and local police forces were tasked with enforcing prohibition laws, but the scale of illegal activity overwhelmed them. With thousands of illegal distilleries and speakeasies operating across the country, especially in large cities, enforcement was often selective or ineffective. Many police officers were underpaid and vulnerable to bribery from bootleggers and gangsters. Corruption became widespread, with entire departments sometimes complicit in protecting organized crime operations. The Bureau of Prohibition, created specifically to tackle alcohol-related crimes, was under-resourced and often failed to make a meaningful impact. Furthermore, court systems became clogged with prohibition-related cases, many of which ended with light penalties or acquittals. The sheer public disregard for the law—coupled with its perceived unfairness—led to a significant erosion in respect for legal institutions. Prohibition also caused tensions between federal and local authorities, further undermining law enforcement effectiveness.
Anti-immigrant sentiment in the 1920s led to significant changes in American education and culture, with a strong push toward assimilation and the rejection of non-Anglo-Saxon influences. Schools became tools for "Americanization," emphasizing English language instruction, American history, and civic values while discouraging the use of foreign languages and customs. Immigrant children were often pressured to abandon their cultural identities to fit into a standardized version of American society. In some states, laws were passed to restrict the teaching of foreign languages in schools, targeting communities like German Americans and Eastern European immigrants. Public discourse portrayed immigrants as threats to moral and political stability, linking them to radical ideologies and crime. Cultural institutions, including libraries and museums, emphasized traditional American values while downplaying immigrant contributions. These efforts reflected broader efforts to mold a homogenous national identity and contributed to cultural suppression. This nativist pressure reinforced divisions between immigrant communities and the dominant white, Protestant mainstream.
Practice Questions
Explain the significance of the Red Scare for American society in the 1920s.
The Red Scare was significant because it increased fear and suspicion toward immigrants, radicals, and labor unions, leading to widespread violations of civil liberties. The government responded with the Palmer Raids, arresting thousands without proper evidence or warrants. This created a climate of paranoia and encouraged xenophobic policies like the 1924 Immigration Act. Media sensationalism further spread panic, contributing to a culture of intolerance. The Red Scare also helped justify political repression and weakened progressive movements. Overall, it marked a shift toward conservative, nativist attitudes that deeply affected American politics and society during the 1920s.
How did Prohibition lead to the rise of organized crime in the 1920s?
Prohibition made alcohol illegal, but public demand remained high, creating a black market that gangsters exploited for huge profits. Criminals like Al Capone built vast empires through bootlegging, bribing police and politicians to avoid arrest. Speakeasies thrived, and organized crime grew increasingly violent as gangs competed for territory, exemplified by the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre. The federal government’s inability to enforce the law effectively allowed criminal networks to expand. Prohibition unintentionally empowered organized crime, making gang leaders wealthy and influential, while undermining law enforcement and public respect for the legal system.
