The 1960s saw transformative changes in American society through bold government action and grassroots activism aimed at reducing inequality and expanding civil rights.
President Kennedy’s Social Vision
Tackling poverty and inequality
President John F. Kennedy, elected in 1960, brought a youthful energy and progressive outlook to the White House. He launched a range of social and economic programs under the banner of the New Frontier, with the goal of improving living conditions and opportunities for all Americans, particularly the disadvantaged. His approach focused on economic growth, social justice, and modernization.
Kennedy proposed a number of anti-poverty measures. Though many of his efforts were blocked by a conservative Congress, he managed to:
Expand Social Security benefits, increasing the amount received by elderly and disabled Americans.
Raise the federal minimum wage, aiming to lift more people above the poverty line.
Increase federal funds for public housing and urban renewal projects, designed to replace slums with better housing and infrastructure.
While these reforms were modest compared to what followed, they helped shift public expectations about the federal government’s role in tackling poverty and inequality.
Education and health goals
Kennedy saw education as vital to both national success and individual opportunity. He proposed increased federal funding for schools and financial aid for college students, though most of these proposals were blocked in Congress.
He also supported health care reform, introducing plans for what would later become Medicare—government-funded health insurance for the elderly. However, strong opposition from conservative lawmakers and the medical establishment meant these plans did not pass during his presidency.
Despite these setbacks, Kennedy's vision paved the way for more sweeping reforms under Lyndon B. Johnson, who built on many of Kennedy’s ideas in his own domestic agenda.
President Johnson and the Great Society
Launching the Great Society
Following Kennedy’s assassination in 1963, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the presidency and moved swiftly to honor Kennedy’s legacy while pursuing his own bold vision for America. In 1964, Johnson launched the Great Society, a wide-reaching set of policies aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice.
The Great Society was grounded in the belief that government had a responsibility to improve the lives of its citizens, particularly those who were disadvantaged. Johnson used his political skills to push a wide range of bills through Congress, resulting in some of the most important social legislation in American history.
War on Poverty
A key feature of the Great Society was Johnson’s War on Poverty, which aimed to address the root causes of poverty through education, job training, and community action.
Major programs included:
Economic Opportunity Act (1964): Created the Office of Economic Opportunity to oversee anti-poverty programs.
Job Corps: Provided free vocational training and education to young people from low-income backgrounds.
Head Start: Offered preschool education, nutrition, and health services to disadvantaged children to prepare them for school.
VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America): Sent volunteers into poor communities to support local development and social services.
Community Action Programs: Encouraged local communities to create their own anti-poverty initiatives, promoting grassroots involvement.
These programs aimed to give people the skills and resources they needed to lift themselves out of poverty, rather than relying on simple financial assistance.
Education reforms
Johnson believed that education was the key to breaking the cycle of poverty, and he made it a central focus of his domestic agenda.
Two key pieces of legislation were passed:
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965: Provided massive federal funding to public schools, especially in poor areas. It helped reduce disparities in education quality across different communities.
Higher Education Act (1965): Increased access to college by providing federal scholarships, student loans, and grants to universities.
Other measures supported adult education, literacy programs, and aid to special education initiatives. Johnson’s education reforms aimed to level the playing field for students of all backgrounds.
Health care initiatives
Johnson achieved what Kennedy could not: the creation of a federal health care system for the elderly and poor.
Medicare (1965): Offered health insurance to people aged 65 and over, regardless of income or medical history.
Medicaid (1965): Provided health coverage to low-income families and individuals, funded jointly by federal and state governments.
These programs brought millions of Americans into the health care system, greatly improving access to doctors, hospitals, and preventative care.
The rise of feminist movements
Second-wave feminism
The 1960s witnessed the rise of second-wave feminism, which sought to address a wider range of issues than the earlier women’s suffrage movement. Instead of focusing solely on voting rights, second-wave feminists demanded equality in the workplace, education, family life, and reproductive rights.
This wave of activism was sparked in part by Betty Friedan’s groundbreaking 1963 book, The Feminine Mystique, which exposed the dissatisfaction of middle-class women confined to domestic roles. Friedan called this widespread unhappiness "the problem that has no name."
Feminists argued that gender roles were socially constructed and that women deserved the same rights, freedoms, and opportunities as men. The movement gained traction in part due to the broader spirit of protest and reform that characterized the 1960s.
Formation of the National Organization for Women (NOW)
In 1966, Betty Friedan and other activists founded the National Organization for Women (NOW), which became the most prominent feminist group of the era.
NOW’s goals included:
Full enforcement of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, which prohibited sex discrimination in employment.
The passage of the Equal Rights Amendment.
More accessible childcare services to support working mothers.
Expanded access to birth control and abortion services.
Equal opportunities in education and athletics.
NOW adopted a multi-pronged strategy, using lobbying, lawsuits, media campaigns, and protests to fight for gender equality.
The fight for equal pay
Persistent wage inequality
During the 1960s, women often earned substantially less than men for performing the same jobs. In many cases, job listings were separated by gender, and women were steered into lower-paying roles.
To address this inequality, Congress passed the Equal Pay Act in 1963, which made it illegal for employers to pay men and women different wages for the same work. This was a significant milestone, but:
The law contained loopholes, such as allowing unequal pay based on seniority or merit systems.
Enforcement was limited, especially in private companies and smaller businesses.
Many employers reclassified jobs to argue they were not “equal,” avoiding compliance.
Feminist groups like NOW fought to strengthen the law and raise awareness about ongoing discrimination.
Civil Rights Act Title VII
A year later, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed. While primarily aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination, Title VII also outlawed employment discrimination based on sex.
This addition gave women a powerful legal tool to challenge workplace inequality. Over time, it led to major court cases and legal precedents that reshaped employment practices in the United States.
Landmark court rulings: Roe v. Wade
Abortion rights and privacy
One of the most significant victories for the feminist movement came with the Supreme Court’s decision in Roe v. Wade in 1973. The case centered around a Texas law that banned most abortions, and the Court ruled that such restrictions violated a woman’s constitutional right to privacy under the 14th Amendment.
The ruling established a legal framework:
In the first trimester, women had full freedom to choose an abortion.
In the second trimester, states could regulate the procedure in the interest of the mother’s health.
In the third trimester, states could prohibit abortions, except when necessary to protect the woman’s life or health.
This landmark decision effectively legalized abortion nationwide, making it a protected right.
Public response and controversy
The ruling had a profound impact:
It empowered women to make decisions about their own bodies and futures.
It sparked the rise of the pro-life and pro-choice movements, leading to a sharp political divide that continues today.
Many states began to pass laws limiting access, challenging the Roe decision through legal and political means.
Despite ongoing efforts to overturn or weaken it, Roe v. Wade remains a cornerstone of reproductive rights in the United States.
The Equal Rights Amendment and its opposition
The ERA campaign
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was designed to guarantee equality under the law, regardless of sex. First introduced in 1923, it gained new momentum in the 1970s as the feminist movement gained strength.
In 1972, the ERA passed both houses of Congress and was sent to the states for ratification. It needed approval from 38 states to become part of the Constitution.
Supporters argued the ERA would:
Eliminate all forms of legal sex discrimination.
Provide a clear constitutional basis for gender equality.
Reinforce gains made by feminist groups in the 1960s and 70s.
Opposition and failure to pass
Despite initial support, the ERA faced fierce opposition, particularly from conservative groups and activists like Phyllis Schlafly.
Opponents claimed:
The ERA would lead to women being drafted into the military.
It would undermine traditional family roles and values.
It was redundant, as existing laws already provided protections.
By the deadline in 1982, only 35 states had ratified the amendment—three short of the required number. The ERA was never adopted, though it remains a symbol of the struggle for gender equality.
FAQ
The media played a crucial role in shaping both public support and criticism of the Great Society. Initially, coverage was largely positive, reflecting widespread optimism about government-led social change. Newspapers and television praised Johnson's commitment to fighting poverty and inequality, and frequently highlighted the human stories behind programs like Head Start and Medicare. This helped build national momentum for reform. However, as the decade progressed, media narratives began to shift. Journalists reported instances of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption within certain programs, which eroded public confidence. Moreover, the Vietnam War, which escalated under Johnson, began dominating headlines, and the cost of the war was often contrasted with domestic spending. Critics used the media to argue that the Great Society was expensive and unsustainable. Some outlets amplified concerns from conservative politicians and commentators, portraying the programs as examples of government overreach. This media shift contributed to growing skepticism, especially among middle-class taxpayers.
The Great Society had a significant impact on African American communities, particularly in the areas of health and education, which had long been marked by systemic inequality. Medicare and Medicaid expanded access to health services for poor African Americans who had previously faced discrimination in hospitals and clinics. Importantly, the federal government enforced desegregation of health facilities as a condition for receiving Medicare funds, which led to the integration of many previously segregated hospitals in the South. In education, federal funding from the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965) helped underfunded schools in predominantly Black neighborhoods improve facilities, hire more qualified teachers, and provide additional learning resources. Programs like Head Start also gave African American children from low-income families a stronger early foundation. However, despite these gains, disparities persisted due to local inequalities, discrimination, and uneven implementation. Nonetheless, these programs marked a turning point in the federal government’s role in supporting marginalized communities.
The feminist movement, while gaining momentum during the 1960s and 70s, faced numerous challenges from both organized opposition and broader societal attitudes. A significant obstacle came from conservative women’s groups and figures like Phyllis Schlafly, who argued that feminism threatened traditional family values and would harm women more than help them. Schlafly’s campaign against the Equal Rights Amendment warned that it would lead to outcomes such as the conscription of women, loss of spousal benefits, and the erosion of the nuclear family. Many working-class and religious women also felt alienated from the movement, viewing its goals as disconnected from their daily concerns. Within the feminist movement itself, there were internal divisions regarding race, class, and sexuality, with some Black and working-class women feeling that their unique struggles were ignored. Additionally, popular media often portrayed feminists as aggressive or unfeminine, reinforcing stereotypes that made it harder for the movement to gain widespread acceptance.
Economic criticisms of Johnson’s Great Society centered on the cost, efficiency, and long-term impact of the programs. Many conservatives and some moderate Democrats argued that the federal government was overreaching by involving itself too heavily in social issues that had traditionally been left to states or private institutions. The programs required massive federal spending, and critics warned of increasing national debt and dependency on government support. Some believed that the rapid expansion of welfare programs would discourage personal responsibility and work ethic, especially among the poor. As administrative costs rose, accusations of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and mismanagement became common. Additionally, the Vietnam War’s escalating cost led to budget strains, forcing Johnson to make tough decisions about funding priorities. Opponents used this to argue that domestic spending was fiscally irresponsible. These criticisms contributed to a growing backlash against liberal economic policies and influenced the conservative resurgence in the late 1970s and 1980s.
The 1973 Roe v. Wade decision had a far-reaching impact not only on reproductive rights but also on American politics and constitutional law. By establishing a constitutional right to privacy, the ruling set a precedent that influenced a variety of later cases involving personal autonomy, such as decisions on contraception, marriage, and family life. Politically, Roe galvanized both the feminist movement and conservative religious groups. It became a rallying point for the emerging New Right, which included evangelical Christians who opposed abortion on moral grounds. The decision deepened ideological divides and contributed to the polarization of American politics. It also sparked ongoing efforts to either uphold or overturn the ruling, leading to decades of state-level legislation, court challenges, and Supreme Court nominations influenced by candidates’ views on Roe. The case reshaped the national debate about the role of government in private life and remains a central issue in American legal and political discourse.
Practice Questions
Explain two effects of Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society programs on American society.
One effect of the Great Society was a significant expansion of federal support for health care. The introduction of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965 ensured millions of elderly and low-income Americans could access medical services, improving public health and reducing financial strain. Another effect was the increased access to education. Through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and the Higher Education Act, more funding was provided to schools in poor areas, and more students could attend college. These reforms aimed to reduce inequality and helped shape a more inclusive society by tackling poverty at its roots.
Write a narrative account analyzing the development of the feminist movement in the 1960s and 1970s.
The feminist movement grew rapidly in the 1960s, sparked by Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique in 1963, which exposed dissatisfaction among housewives. In 1966, Friedan co-founded the National Organization for Women (NOW) to campaign for equality. Feminists achieved key victories such as the Equal Pay Act (1963) and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964), challenging workplace discrimination. The Roe v. Wade decision in 1973 legalized abortion, strengthening women’s reproductive rights. Although the Equal Rights Amendment failed to pass in 1982, the movement succeeded in raising awareness and expanding women’s roles in education, employment, and public life.
