OCR Specification focus:
‘Alfred’s position in 871; the defence of Wessex; the threat of the Great Heathen Army (865–878)’
Alfred’s rise to power and his confrontation with the Great Heathen Army marked one of the most critical phases in Anglo-Saxon England’s survival. Between 865 and 878, the kingdom of Wessex faced repeated Viking incursions that tested its leadership, military organisation, and strategic resilience.
Alfred’s Strategic Position in 871
When Alfred became king in 871, following the death of his brother King Aethelred I, Wessex was the last unconquered Anglo-Saxon kingdom. The Viking forces had already overrun Northumbria and East Anglia, and Mercia was severely weakened. This left Wessex as the primary target for Viking expansion.
Strengths of Alfred’s Position
Geographical advantages: Wessex lay in the south and west of England, protected by natural barriers such as rivers, marshes, and hill ranges, making certain approaches difficult for Viking armies.
Established royal authority: The West Saxon monarchy had relatively stable governance and a loyal noble elite.
Potential for alliances: Relations with some Mercian leaders allowed for cooperative defence against the Viking threat.
Weaknesses of Alfred’s Position
Exhaustion from previous campaigns: Years of war against Viking forces had depleted manpower and resources.
Viking superiority in mobility: Their ability to use rivers and coasts for rapid movement made defensive planning difficult.
Political instability: A new king’s rule was always vulnerable to challenges, especially in wartime.
The Threat of the Great Heathen Army (865–878)
Great Heathen Army: A large coalition of Viking warriors, primarily from Denmark, who invaded England in 865 and aimed for conquest and settlement rather than just raiding.
Unlike earlier Viking raiders who sought quick plunder, the Great Heathen Army arrived to conquer and settle, adopting a strategy of wintering in fortified bases and launching campaigns in multiple regions. Led by commanders such as Ivar the Boneless, Halfdan, and later Guthrum, their movements across England showed a high level of coordination and adaptability.
Map of England showing the principal routes and bases of the Great Heathen Army (865–878). Labels for Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, and Wessex help situate Alfred’s strategic problem in 871. The clear route arrows and dates align with the period covered by the syllabus. Source
Chronology of Viking Movements
865: Landed in East Anglia; gained horses and supplies.
866–867: Captured York, taking control of Northumbria.
868–870: Advanced into Mercia and established dominance.
870–871: Turned to Wessex, launching a series of major battles.
The Defence of Wessex
In 871, known as “the year of nine battles”, Alfred faced repeated Viking assaults. Key features of the defence included:
Rapid response forces: Local levies, called the fyrd, were summoned quickly to confront raids.
Use of fortified positions: Towns and natural strongholds acted as rallying points.
Tactical retreats: Avoiding decisive defeat allowed Wessex to regroup and continue resistance.
Although Alfred fought valiantly, the West Saxons suffered several setbacks, leading him to negotiate a temporary peace with the Vikings, often involving payment of tribute.
Challenges in Defence
The Vikings’ logistical flexibility meant they could strike unexpectedly.
Localised resistance sometimes lacked coordination between shires.
Continuous campaigning strained agricultural production and local economies.
Viking Strategy and Tactics
The Great Heathen Army combined shock tactics in battle with long-term occupation strategies:
Mobility via ships and horses to choose advantageous battlefields.
Overwintering in strategic locations, such as Reading in 870, which provided secure bases for raids.
Psychological warfare, including destruction of religious sites, undermining Anglo-Saxon morale.
Overwintering: The Viking practice of remaining in a conquered or fortified position over winter to maintain pressure and prepare for the next campaigning season.
Alfred’s Response before 878
Though often outnumbered, Alfred adapted to Viking pressure by:
Reforming military summons to improve response times.
Seeking diplomatic breathing space through treaties.
Maintaining a core royal household guard for rapid deployment.
However, by the mid-870s, Viking pressure intensified again. The arrival of Guthrum and his forces led to renewed assaults culminating in Alfred’s temporary retreat to Athelney in 878, marking the next phase of the conflict beyond this subsubtopic’s scope.
Map of England (AD 878) showing Wessex and the emerging Danelaw following Alfred’s campaigns. This contextualises Alfred’s defensive choices and the geographical constraints upon Wessex. Extra detail: some depictions of this map include Rollo’s route to Normandy, which is not required by the syllabus. Source
Reasons Wessex Survived up to 878
Alfred’s strategic patience, avoiding catastrophic defeat.
The natural defences of Wessex and the ability to retreat into fortified areas.
A core of loyal thegns and warriors willing to continue resistance despite setbacks.
These years cemented Alfred’s reputation as a resilient leader, setting the stage for later reforms and eventual victory over the Vikings.
FAQ
Earlier Viking raids were typically seasonal hit-and-run attacks aimed at plunder. The Great Heathen Army arrived in 865 with the intention to conquer and settle.
It was a coalition of various Viking groups, mainly from Denmark, and it had the capacity to conduct sustained campaigns over several years.
Its leaders coordinated movements across multiple kingdoms, establishing winter bases and adapting strategies to local conditions, making it a far more persistent threat than earlier raiding parties.
Aethelred’s death forced Alfred to take the throne in the midst of an ongoing military crisis.
This transition created uncertainty in leadership at a critical time, as Alfred had to prove his legitimacy while immediately continuing the war effort.
It also meant that Alfred inherited a fatigued army and strained resources, complicating his ability to respond to the Great Heathen Army effectively.
The term reflects the intensity of conflict between Wessex and the Vikings that year.
Alfred and his forces engaged the Great Heathen Army in multiple locations, often reacting quickly to shifting Viking positions.
While some encounters were victories, others were inconclusive or defeats, with neither side able to deliver a decisive blow, leading to a temporary peace agreement later in the year.
East Anglia served as a strategic launching point for the Great Heathen Army.
In 865, the Vikings secured horses and supplies there without facing major resistance.
From East Anglia, they could move rapidly into Northumbria and later into Mercia.
This early acquisition of resources and mobility gave the Vikings a logistical advantage when they eventually turned towards Wessex.
Overwintering allowed the Vikings to maintain pressure year-round instead of leaving in winter.
By staying in fortified bases, such as Reading in 870, they could:
Repair and prepare ships.
Recruit additional forces.
Plan coordinated spring offensives without long sea voyages.
This constant presence eroded the ability of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms like Wessex to recover between campaigning seasons.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Alfred become King of Wessex, and what was the main Viking force threatening his kingdom at that time?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for the correct year: 871.
1 mark for identifying the main Viking force: The Great Heathen Army.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain two ways in which Alfred’s strategic position in 871 both helped and hindered the defence of Wessex against the Great Heathen Army.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each explanation (max 5 marks overall):
Geographical advantages: Wessex was protected by natural barriers (rivers, marshes, hills), making some approaches difficult for the Vikings (up to 3 marks for clear explanation of how this helped defence).
Established royal authority: Strong leadership and a loyal noble elite enabled better coordination of defence (up to 3 marks for explaining how this aided resistance).
Geographical vulnerabilities: Viking mobility by river and sea allowed them to bypass natural defences and strike unexpectedly (up to 3 marks for explaining the hindrance).
Political instability: As a new king, Alfred faced the risk of internal challenges while fighting an external enemy (up to 3 marks for explaining the hindrance).
Note: Only the first two developed explanations are credited; others can be used for development if relevant. Partial marks for partially developed points.
