OCR Specification focus:
‘Reorganisation of the army and navy; reasons for and extent of military success (leadership, strategy, tactics, resources-reorganisation of the army and navy, logistics, chance)’
Alfred’s military reforms after the Great Heathen Army’s invasions transformed Wessex’s defences. These changes ensured better readiness, strategic flexibility, and long-term resilience against Viking threats.
Alfred’s Strategic Vision
Alfred’s leadership was central to his reforms. He recognised that the fragmented and reactive defence system of earlier Anglo-Saxon England was inadequate against the Vikings’ mobility. His goal was to create a permanent, well-structured military that could withstand repeated incursions.
Key Principles of Reform
Permanent readiness to counter sudden Viking raids.
Integration of land and naval forces for flexible response.
Improved logistics to maintain and support troops in the field.
Reorganisation of the Army
Alfred overhauled the fyrd, the part-time militia that was the backbone of Anglo-Saxon defence.
Fyrd: The traditional Anglo-Saxon levy of free men required to serve in military campaigns for a set period, usually a few weeks per year.
Division into Two Rotating Forces
To address the issue of seasonal availability, Alfred split the fyrd into two contingents:
One half served on active duty while the other remained at home to tend farms and estates.
This rotation ensured continuous military presence without undermining agricultural productivity.
Role of Burhs
Army deployment was closely tied to Alfred’s network of burhs (fortified settlements). These served as:
Strategic strongholds against attack.
Bases for rapid deployment.
Supply hubs to sustain forces during campaigns.
Alfred’s burghal system created a permanent network of fortified burhs positioned to protect routes and population centres, enabling rapid mustering and supply.
Map of burhs listed in the Burghal Hidage, illustrating the strategic spread of fortresses across Wessex. The network shortened response times and constrained Viking raiding corridors. Labels identify principal burhs and rivers to show operational coverage. Source
Creation and Development of the Navy
Recognising the Vikings’ advantage at sea, Alfred developed a naval force capable of challenging their longships.
Alfred’s Naval Innovations
Design of larger ships: Built to outmatch Viking vessels in height and capacity, allowing more men and better stability.
Mixed crews: Included both Frisians and Anglo-Saxons to combine maritime expertise with local manpower.
Tactical goals: Use the navy to intercept Viking forces before landing and to patrol vulnerable coasts.
Longship: A fast, shallow-draught vessel used by the Vikings for both raiding and open-sea travel. Its manoeuvrability made it highly effective for surprise attacks.
Alfred strengthened the naval arm, deploying shallow-draught, oared-and-sailed vessels to intercept Viking fleets in estuaries and coastal waters.
Diagram contrasting clinker (overlapping planks) with carvel (flush planks). Clinker construction produced light, strong, and flexible hulls suited to shallow waters and rapid manoeuvre. Extra detail: the carvel method shown is later/non-Anglo-Saxon but is included to clarify the contrast. Source
Military Strategy and Tactics
Alfred’s reforms were underpinned by a coherent strategic doctrine:
Defence in depth: Utilising burhs and mobile forces to slow, harass, and encircle invaders.
Rapid communication: Roads and messengers connected burhs, allowing swift coordination.
Selective engagement: Avoiding large-scale pitched battles unless conditions were favourable.
Tactics in the Field
Blocking movements: Positioning troops to cut off Viking retreat or resupply.
Siege warfare: Using fortified positions to outlast Viking encampments.
Amphibious interception: Deploying naval forces to disrupt Viking movements along rivers and coasts.
Resources and Logistics
The success of Alfred’s system depended on effective resource management.
Financial and Material Support
Taxation and tribute: Funds from landowners and the royal estate maintained the burhs and paid for ships.
Standardised equipment: Ensured troops could be supplied with consistent arms and armour.
Stockpiling: Burhs stored food, weapons, and repair materials for prolonged sieges.
Logistics: The planning and coordination of the movement, supply, and maintenance of armed forces in military operations.
Fixed earthwork ramparts and ditches anchored local defence while the mobile army concentrated for decisive action.
The Saxon earth rampart at Wareham, a classic burh component of bank and ditch enclosing the town. The form demonstrates rapid medieval construction using turf and soil, later revetted in places. This real-world example shows the scale such defences could reach. Source
The Burghal Hidage
This document recorded the size and obligations of each burh, including:
Number of hides (land units) required to maintain defences.
Manpower obligations for each settlement.
Strategic placement to ensure no part of Wessex was more than a day’s march from a burh.
Reasons for Alfred’s Military Success
Alfred’s achievements were the product of multiple, interlinked factors.
Leadership
Visionary planning and long-term commitment to reform.
Willingness to learn from previous defeats and adapt accordingly.
Strategy and Tactics
Proactive defence combined with calculated offence.
Integration of land and sea operations for greater flexibility.
Resources and Organisation
Sustainable rotation of the fyrd prevented exhaustion of manpower.
Burhs ensured logistical self-sufficiency and local resilience.
Role of Chance
Occasional Viking leadership disputes weakened their effectiveness.
Periods of relative peace allowed Alfred to consolidate reforms without constant disruption.
Extent of Success
By the end of Alfred’s reign:
Wessex had avoided Viking conquest and retained its independence.
A foundation for the later unification of England had been laid.
The army and navy were permanent fixtures of royal power rather than temporary levies.
The burh system formed the backbone of English defence for generations.
These reforms marked a turning point in Anglo-Saxon military capability, demonstrating how organisation, innovation, and leadership could offset the advantages of a highly mobile and aggressive enemy.
FAQ
The traditional fyrd relied on short-term service, meaning forces were often disbanded before campaigns ended, leaving areas vulnerable.
It also drew men away from farms during crucial agricultural periods, risking food shortages.
Alfred’s rotation system ensured a constant military presence without undermining the farming economy, solving both operational and economic weaknesses.
Alfred’s ships were longer, higher-sided, and could carry more men than standard Viking vessels.
They were designed to be more stable in rough seas and to offer a height advantage in boarding actions.
While they sacrificed some manoeuvrability in shallow rivers, their size made them formidable in coastal battles and interceptions.
Burhs acted as both defensive fortresses and logistical hubs, storing supplies and housing garrisons.
The mobile army could quickly move between burhs, responding to threats without leaving other areas undefended.
This combination created a layered defence system that reduced the Vikings’ ability to raid deep inland.
Roads and messenger systems linked burhs, enabling rapid movement of orders and intelligence.
This allowed Alfred to coordinate simultaneous actions across different regions.
Quick communication meant forces could assemble before Viking raiders reached their targets, shifting defence from reactive to proactive.
The threat of interception forced Vikings to reconsider direct landings in well-defended areas.
Some shifted to raiding less protected coasts, while others avoided Wessex entirely during strong naval patrol periods.
By controlling key waterways, Alfred reduced Viking freedom of movement and limited their operational range.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two features of Alfred’s reorganisation of the army that improved its readiness against Viking attacks.
Question 1 (2 marks)
Award 1 mark for each relevant feature identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:
Division of the fyrd into two rotating forces to ensure continuous availability. (1 mark)
Integration of burhs as bases for rapid deployment and supply. (1 mark)
Standardised equipment for troops. (1 mark)
Closer linkage between land and sea forces for flexibility. (1 mark)
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how Alfred’s development of the navy contributed to his military success against the Vikings.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Award marks for explanation and specific detail:
1–2 marks: General description of Alfred’s navy without clear linkage to success.
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of at least two ways the navy supported military success, with some detail.
5 marks: Detailed explanation with specific examples linked directly to defeating or deterring Viking activity.
Indicative content for full marks:
Alfred built larger, more stable ships to outmatch Viking longships. (1 mark)
These ships allowed interception of Viking fleets before landing, limiting their ability to raid inland. (1 mark)
Mixed crews, including experienced Frisians, improved seamanship and operational effectiveness. (1 mark)
Naval patrols along rivers and coasts increased early warning and rapid response capability. (1 mark)
The combination of land and sea strategies restricted Viking movement and increased Wessex’s defensive reach. (1 mark)
