OCR Specification focus:
‘Return of the Vikings in the 890s’
The Viking resurgence in the 890s posed a renewed challenge to Alfred’s defences and provided a decisive test of his military and political reforms.
The Viking Return in the 890s
The 890s saw the reappearance of Viking raiding forces in southern England, following a relative lull after the peace settlements of the 880s. This resurgence was partly due to instability in mainland Europe, where Viking groups operating in Francia were driven out by Frankish resistance and sought new opportunities for plunder.
Composition and Routes of Invasion
The new Viking fleets were a mix of Danish settlers from the Danelaw and displaced warriors from continental campaigns.
Raiding parties entered Kent and the Thames estuary, while others sailed along the southern and eastern coasts, targeting vulnerable areas.
Some attempted overland incursions from East Anglia and Northumbria, exploiting inland waterways and rivers.
Viking Aims and Strategy
To plunder wealth from undefended settlements.
To challenge Alfred’s territorial gains and undermine his authority.
To secure permanent bases for further campaigning.
In 892 two Viking armies landed at Appledore (Kent) and Milton (Kent), reopening large-scale campaigning.
Alfred’s Defensive Preparations
By the 890s, Alfred had implemented significant military reforms in anticipation of renewed threats.
Standing Army and Rotational Service
Reorganisation of the fyrd ensured a constant defensive force: half remained on duty while the other half farmed, allowing readiness without crippling the agrarian economy.
Mounted troops increased mobility, enabling rapid responses to raids.
Naval Defences
Alfred expanded and improved his naval fleet, designing ships longer and swifter than Viking longships, intended to intercept raiders before landfall.
These ships were manned by both West Saxon sailors and foreign mercenaries.
Fortified Burhs
The burghal system created a network of fortified towns, strategically positioned within a day’s march of each other.
Burhs served as:
Military strongpoints for defence.
Safe havens for civilians during raids.
Centres of local administration and trade.
Burhs such as Wareham, Winchester, Cricklade and Wallingford anchored frontier defence and denied Viking bases.
Oblique view of Wareham’s Saxon earthwork rampart and ditch. This is a representative example of the burh defences used to protect populations, supplies and communication lines during the 890s campaigns. The photograph highlights scale and profile without unnecessary interpretation overlays. Source
Campaigns Against the Vikings in the 890s
The Viking threat unfolded in multiple stages.
Initial Raids and Encampments
Raiding forces established bases along the Kentish coast and at Appledore and Milton.
Some Viking contingents coordinated attacks from both land and sea.
Alfred’s Counter-Measures
West Saxon forces launched blockades and sieges against Viking encampments.
Mobile field armies pursued raiders, cutting off their retreat to ships or fortified bases.
Key Clashes
Alfred’s interception of Viking fleets at sea demonstrated the growing effectiveness of his navy.
The presence of fortified burhs limited Viking ability to secure winter quarters.
Political Context and Alliances
Alfred’s leadership extended beyond military action, relying on diplomacy and alliances to contain the Viking threat.
Diplomacy with Mercia
Aethelred, Lord of the Mercians, coordinated closely with Alfred, reinforcing northern and midland defences.
Joint operations ensured that Vikings could not move freely between territories.
Influence over the Danelaw
Though the Danelaw remained under Danish control, Alfred’s presence and military pressure discouraged large-scale coordination between Danelaw settlers and new Viking arrivals.
Reasons for Alfred’s Success
Alfred’s ability to meet the Viking challenge in the 890s can be attributed to a combination of strategic, tactical, and logistical strengths.
Leadership and Strategy
Clear understanding of Viking raiding patterns allowed Alfred to anticipate and disrupt their movements.
Willingness to invest in long-term infrastructure rather than relying solely on reactive measures.
Tactical Innovations
Rapid response through mounted troops.
Naval interceptions before landfall.
Use of sieges to neutralise Viking bases.
Resources and Logistics
The burh network facilitated supply chains and troop movement.
Rotational service maintained a steady manpower pool.
Logistics: The planning and coordination of the movement, supply, and maintenance of military forces.
Element of Chance
Bad weather and disease occasionally weakened Viking forces, giving Alfred an advantage in certain campaigns.
Assessment of Alfred’s Success
By the mid-890s, the Viking threat had largely subsided, with many raiders abandoning their campaigns and returning to the Continent or settling in the Danelaw.
Understanding the earlier campaigns of the Great Heathen Army explains why the 890s raids differed in scale and outcome.
Map of the Great Viking Army routes across Anglo-Saxon England, 865–878. This predates the 890s but clarifies why Alfred reorganised army, navy and burh networks that later contained the renewed threat. Extra detail: the map stops at 878 and does not depict the 892–896 operations. Source
Achievements
The defensive network proved resilient and difficult to penetrate.
Alfred demonstrated the effectiveness of combined arms (land, sea, and fortification-based defence).
Maintained political stability and unity within Wessex and allied territories.
Limitations
Some Viking raids still penetrated defences, causing localised destruction.
Full control over the Danelaw remained unattainable during Alfred’s reign.
Long-Term Impact
The measures taken in the 890s laid the foundation for future English kings to expand control into Viking-held territories.
Alfred’s reign emerged as a model of adaptive defence against a mobile and unpredictable enemy.
FAQ
The renewed Viking attacks in England during the 890s were partly triggered by events in the Frankish kingdoms. Viking forces operating in Francia faced increased resistance from King Odo and local rulers, making sustained raiding less profitable.
As Frankish coastal defences improved, many Viking groups were forced to abandon their bases and seek easier targets, redirecting their attention to England where past raids had been successful.
Vikings often relied on establishing fortified winter bases to store loot and regroup. The burh system made this strategy much harder.
Burhs were positioned to block key river routes and overland paths, denying Vikings strategic locations for camps.
Garrisoned forces could quickly disrupt attempts to fortify or resupply encampments.
This forced many Viking groups to keep moving, making them more vulnerable to interception.
Yes, one key example was the siege at Buttington in 893. Viking forces had retreated to a fortified position after being blocked in their inland movements.
A combined Anglo-Saxon and Mercian army besieged them, cutting off supplies and forcing the Vikings to fight their way out. The siege weakened the Viking force significantly, contributing to their eventual withdrawal from prolonged campaigning.
Alfred’s ships were designed to be longer, higher-sided, and faster than Viking longships.
The higher sides gave an advantage in boarding actions, allowing West Saxon crews to fight from an elevated position.
The longer hulls could carry more men and withstand rougher seas.
These ships were also better suited to intercepting Viking fleets in open water, though they were less agile in shallow rivers compared to longships.
Some Danelaw settlers did assist the incoming Viking forces, but support was inconsistent.
While there were cases of coordination, such as offering supplies or safe passage, many Danelaw communities had established livelihoods and avoided open conflict with Alfred’s forces.
Alfred’s military presence and occasional punitive expeditions in border areas discouraged large-scale cooperation, preventing a unified Viking front during these campaigns.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did the Viking armies return to England in the 890s, landing at Appledore and Milton?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correct year 892.
1 mark for mentioning both landing sites (Appledore and Milton) in the answer.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain two reasons why Alfred was able to contain the Viking threat during the 890s.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 5 marks:
1–2 marks per valid reason identified and explained (up to two reasons).
Reasons may include:
Burh network: strategically placed fortified towns allowed rapid troop deployment and denied Vikings secure bases. (Up to 2 marks: 1 for identifying the burh system, 1 for explaining its role.)
Reorganisation of the fyrd: rotational service ensured a constant defensive force without harming agricultural productivity. (Up to 2 marks: 1 for identifying, 1 for explaining impact.)
Improved navy: longer, faster ships enabled interception of Viking fleets before they landed. (Up to 2 marks: 1 for identifying, 1 for explaining impact.)
Alliances with Mercia: joint operations limited Viking movement between territories. (Up to 2 marks: 1 for identifying, 1 for explaining impact.)
Additional 1 mark for clear use of accurate factual detail (e.g., specific locations like Wareham or Buttington, or named allies such as Aethelred of Mercia).
