OCR Specification focus:
‘Alexis’s relations with Zaporozhian Cossacks and Poland; influence of Golitsyn and expedition to Crimea; relations with China and Treaty of Nerchinsk’
The mid-to-late seventeenth century was a pivotal period for Russia’s international relations. Tsar Alexis I (1645–1676) and his successors were forced to navigate complex struggles with Poland, manage relations with the Zaporozhian Cossacks, and expand Russian influence eastwards, all while balancing internal pressures and western diplomatic expectations. This subsubtopic examines how these relationships shaped Russia’s strategic development.
Alexis and the Zaporozhian Cossacks
Who were the Zaporozhian Cossacks?
The Zaporozhian Cossacks were a semi-autonomous military community based in the southern steppes of modern-day Ukraine, centred around the Dnieper River. They played a key role as both defenders and destabilising elements in Eastern Europe.
Zaporozhian Cossacks: A free warrior society located beyond the Dnieper rapids, known for their military skill, independence, and frequent revolts against Polish authority.
Cossacks and Russia
The Cossacks were nominally under the control of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth but often resisted Polish rule.
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the Hetman of the Cossacks, launched a large-scale uprising against Poland, known as the Khmelnytsky Uprising.
Facing Polish repression, the Cossacks sought support from Russia, appealing to Tsar Alexis for protection.
In 1654, the Treaty of Pereyaslav marked a turning point:
The Cossacks pledged loyalty to Alexis.
Russia agreed to defend them, which inevitably led to war with Poland.
This was significant as it tied Russia into a prolonged struggle for dominance in Ukraine and Poland, fundamentally altering the regional balance of power.
Alexis and Poland
Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)
The Russo-Polish War was fought over control of Ukraine and the legacy of the Cossack alliance.
Russian victories included initial territorial gains in Smolensk and Left-Bank Ukraine.
However, the conflict dragged on, complicated by the intervention of Sweden in the so-called “Deluge” (1655–1660).
Truce of Andrusovo (1667)
After years of conflict, the Truce of Andrusovo ended hostilities.
Key outcomes:
Russia gained Left-Bank Ukraine and the city of Kiev (initially for two years, later permanent).
The Dnieper River became a dividing line between Polish and Russian spheres of influence.
A historical map of Right-Bank Ukraine in the seventeenth–eighteenth centuries with the Dnipro marking the division from the Left Bank. It visually anchors the Andrusovo settlement by situating key voivodeships and Cossack-era territories. Extra detail includes later toponyms beyond 1667. Source
The Influence of Golitsyn and the Crimea
Boyar Influence
Following Alexis’s death, Prince Vasily Golitsyn, a prominent boyar and diplomat, became a key figure during the regency of Sophia (1682–1689). His influence shaped Russia’s foreign policy towards Poland, the Ottoman Empire, and the Crimea.
Boyar: A member of the highest rank of the Russian nobility, influential in politics and often competing with the Tsar for power.
Crimea and the Ottoman Empire
Golitsyn sought to expand Russia’s influence southwards against the Crimean Khanate, a vassal of the Ottoman Empire.
He organised two major campaigns against the Crimean Khanate in 1687 and 1689, known as the Crimean Expeditions.
Early-20th-century Russian encyclopaedia map illustrating the Crimean steppe theatre and approaches to the Perekop isthmus, the operational focus of the 1687 and 1689 campaigns. It shows geographic constraints that undermined Russian logistics. Source
Both campaigns were unsuccessful, due to logistical failures, poor supply lines, and the strength of Crimean Tatar cavalry.
Despite failure, these expeditions were significant because they:
Demonstrated Russia’s ambition to weaken Ottoman influence.
Showed the limits of Russian military organisation before the reforms of Peter the Great.
Relations with China and the Treaty of Nerchinsk
Russian Expansion Eastwards
While Russia fought for influence in Eastern Europe, it was also expanding eastward into Siberia and towards China.
Russian settlers and Cossacks pushed into the Amur River region, bringing Russia into conflict with the Qing dynasty.
Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689)
The Treaty of Nerchinsk was a landmark diplomatic agreement between Russia and China:
Russia agreed to withdraw from the Amur region.
The border was fixed along the Argun River and Stanovoy mountains.
Simplified map of the Sino-Russian frontier after the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), with the Argun and Stanovoy forming the boundary. It clarifies how the treaty stabilised Russia’s Far Eastern border and established regulated diplomacy. Extra detail includes rival claims illustrated in colour. Source
Trade relations between the two states were established.
Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689): The first formal treaty between Russia and China, resolving border disputes and establishing regulated trade, mediated by Jesuit missionaries.
This treaty was significant because:
It prevented costly prolonged conflict with China.
It marked Russia’s first treaty with a major Asian power, signalling its growing role in international diplomacy.
The Jesuit mediation highlighted the increasing role of Western influence in Russian foreign affairs.
Key Themes and Implications
Shift in Balance of Power: Russia emerged from conflicts with Poland as the dominant force in Ukraine.
Diplomatic Evolution: Relations with the Cossacks, Poland, and China showed Russia transitioning from a relatively insular state to one engaged in complex international diplomacy.
Military Limitations: The failures of Golitsyn’s Crimean campaigns revealed structural weaknesses in Russia’s pre-reform military.
East and West: Russian policy under Alexis and Golitsyn was twofold — consolidating influence in Eastern Europe while cautiously managing expansion into Asia.
FAQ
Khmelnytsky, as Hetman of the Cossacks, initiated the uprising against Polish rule in 1648. His leadership made the Cossack Host a decisive military force in the region.
His decision to appeal to Russia for protection directly led to the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654, binding the Cossacks to Tsar Alexis. This move shifted the balance of power in Eastern Europe and compelled Russia into conflict with Poland.
The Truce weakened Poland’s geopolitical standing.
Loss of Left-Bank Ukraine and Kiev reduced Poland’s influence over Cossack territory.
It marked the beginning of Poland’s decline as a regional power.
Russia’s strengthened position encouraged further Polish vulnerability to internal instability and external threats.
The treaty was symbolic of Poland’s waning dominance in Eastern Europe during the seventeenth century.
They demonstrated Russia’s intention to challenge Ottoman dominance on its southern frontier.
Although the campaigns of 1687 and 1689 ended in retreat, they highlighted logistical difficulties such as steppe terrain, water shortages, and supply chain failures.
Strategically, the attempts reflected Russia’s ambitions to gain access to the Black Sea, an aim only realised later under Peter the Great.
Jesuit missionaries served as mediators between Russia and China because they had the trust of the Qing court.
They translated documents and facilitated communication between parties.
Their presence ensured a peaceful outcome instead of prolonged conflict.
Their involvement also reflected the growing influence of Western intermediaries in Eurasian diplomacy.
The treaty temporarily halted Russian advances into the Amur region, restricting settlement and military presence there.
However, it secured peaceful relations with China, allowing Russia to consolidate its hold on Siberia.
In the longer term, this agreement laid the foundation for Russia’s gradual reassertion in the Far East, culminating in later treaties that expanded its borders into Manchuria.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year was the Treaty of Nerchinsk signed between Russia and China?
Mark Scheme
1689 = 2 marks.
Any other date = 0 marks.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which Russia’s relations with the Zaporozhian Cossacks influenced its conflict with Poland during the reign of Tsar Alexis.
Mark Scheme
Award up to 3 marks for each well-explained point. Answers must clearly link Cossack relations to the conflict with Poland.
Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654): Cossacks pledged loyalty to Alexis, which drew Russia into war with Poland. (1 mark for mention, 2–3 marks for explanation of how this triggered war and changed balance of power).
Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648): Cossack rebellion against Poland pushed them to seek Russian protection, escalating tensions with Poland. (1 mark for mention, 2–3 marks for explanation of its role in worsening Russo-Polish conflict).
Additional relevant points (e.g., Russian support for Cossack autonomy undermining Polish authority) may be credited within the 6-mark limit.
