OCR Specification focus:
‘Turkish war and loss of Azov 1711; military successes in the Baltic and the Battle of Poltava and the Treaty of Nystadt 1721’
The early eighteenth century was a turning point for Russia, marked by setbacks against the Ottoman Empire and extraordinary victories in the Baltic which transformed Russia into a European power.
The Turkish War and the Loss of Azov, 1711
Background to the Conflict
The Turkish War of 1711, also known as the Pruth River Campaign, was a critical episode in Peter the Great’s foreign policy. Having seized Azov from the Ottoman Empire in 1696, Peter had secured a crucial foothold on the Black Sea. However, Ottoman resentment and renewed alliances with Sweden created instability in the south.
Russia’s ongoing war with Sweden (the Great Northern War) made it vulnerable to attack from another front.
Peter’s alliance with Moldavia encouraged Ottoman suspicion, leading Sultan Ahmed III to mobilise.
Russian ambitions for access to warm-water ports conflicted directly with Ottoman territorial interests.
The Campaign of 1711
Peter personally led around 38,000 men south towards the Pruth River.
Contemporary map of the Battle of Stănilești (1711) on the Pruth River, with encampments and manoeuvres clearly marked. It visualises how Peter’s army became trapped, leading to negotiations and the surrender of Azov. As an antique engraving. Source
The Ottomans, with over 120,000 troops, decisively outnumbered them.
Russian forces became trapped and surrounded due to poor logistics and supply shortages.
Negotiations with the Ottomans were unavoidable, forcing Peter to abandon his Black Sea gains.
Treaty of the Pruth (1711)
The treaty signed after the failed campaign brought about major setbacks:
Russia surrendered Azov, reversing its earlier Black Sea expansion.
Russia agreed to demolish fortresses at Taganrog and nearby strongholds.
The Ottoman Empire reasserted dominance in the Black Sea region.
This marked a temporary strategic failure for Peter, underlining the limits of Russian power when overextended on two fronts.
Treaty of the Pruth (1711): Agreement between Russia and the Ottoman Empire requiring Russia to surrender Azov and withdraw from southern territories.
The Turkish war exposed flaws in Russian planning but did not cripple Peter’s ambitions elsewhere. Instead, Russia shifted its focus back to the Baltic theatre.
Military Successes in the Baltic
The Great Northern War Context
The Great Northern War (1700–1721) pitted Russia against Sweden for control of the Baltic region. Sweden, under Charles XII, had long dominated the area, but Russia’s modernising reforms provided it with the resources to challenge this dominance.
Key Russian advantages included:
Peter’s programme of military modernisation, particularly in artillery and disciplined infantry.
The construction of a navy to secure coastal operations.
Increasing mobilisation of Russia’s population through taxation and conscription.
The Battle of Poltava (1709)
The most decisive turning point was the Battle of Poltava in June 1709.
Historical map of the Battle of Poltava (1709) with troop positions and fortifications annotated. It illustrates Russian defensive works and artillery superiority that underpinned victory. Labels are in French, but features are clearly marked. Source
Charles XII of Sweden invaded Ukraine, seeking allies among the Cossacks.
Russian defences, including fortified camps, wore down Swedish forces weakened by harsh winters and supply shortages.
At Poltava, Russia fielded about 45,000 men against 25,000 Swedes. Superior artillery and entrenched positions ensured a crushing Russian victory.
Consequences of Poltava:
Sweden’s power was fatally weakened, marking the decline of its dominance in northern Europe.
Russia emerged as a rising power, securing international recognition.
Charles XII fled to the Ottoman Empire, later encouraging the Turks to confront Russia in 1711.
Battle of Poltava (1709): A decisive Russian victory over Sweden in Ukraine during the Great Northern War, ensuring Russia’s emergence as a major European power.
This battle became symbolic of Peter’s modernised army and his determination to secure Russia’s western frontier.
Continued Campaigns and Naval Expansion
Following Poltava, Russia pressed its advantage:
Seizure of key territories including Ingria, Estonia, and Livonia.
Creation of a permanent Russian presence on the Baltic coast.
Establishment of St Petersburg (1703) as a strategic base and symbol of western orientation.
Russia’s growing Baltic fleet allowed it to challenge Sweden at sea, consolidating its position in the region.
The Treaty of Nystadt, 1721
Terms of the Treaty
The Treaty of Nystadt (1721) ended the Great Northern War and formalised Russian dominance:
University map of Europe in 1721 highlighting Russia’s Baltic acquisitions of Ingria, Estonia, and Livonia after the Treaty of Nystadt. It situates these gains in wider European context. Source
Russia gained Ingria, Estonia, Livonia, and part of Karelia, giving access to the Baltic Sea.
Sweden retained Finland but was permanently weakened as a great power.
Russia secured international recognition of its new status.
Long-Term Significance
Russia replaced Sweden as the dominant power in the Baltic.
Access to the sea allowed increased trade and diplomatic contact with Europe.
The victory confirmed the success of Peter’s reforms in military, naval, and administrative spheres.
Peter declared himself Emperor (Tsar of All the Russias) in 1721, symbolising Russia’s transformation into an empire.
Treaty of Nystadt (1721): The peace treaty ending the Great Northern War, granting Russia control of Baltic territories and marking its rise as a European great power.
Unlike the Turkish setback, Russia’s Baltic triumphs demonstrated the enduring impact of reform and consolidation, fundamentally altering the balance of power in northern Europe.
FAQ
Peter sought warm-water access to the Black Sea, a long-standing Russian ambition. He believed Ottoman weakness and Moldavian support would allow quick success.
However, the strategy overextended Russia’s forces, as resources were already heavily tied up in the Baltic theatre against Sweden. This dual-front commitment ultimately contributed to disaster at the Pruth.
Contemporary accounts claim Catherine offered her jewels to bribe Ottoman officials, helping secure relatively lenient peace terms.
While the story may be embellished, it became part of Russian folklore, highlighting Catherine’s supposed influence in mitigating the scale of defeat.
Poltava forced many European powers to reassess their balance of alliances.
Denmark and Saxony rejoined the anti-Swedish coalition.
Britain and the Dutch Republic, concerned with wider European conflicts, began recognising Russia’s growing military strength.
Sweden’s allies became increasingly reluctant to continue supporting Charles XII.
Charles’s presence in Ottoman territory pressured the Sultan to confront Russia, directly leading to the Pruth campaign.
It also prolonged Swedish resistance, as Charles lobbied for Ottoman military support. His exile illustrated how Russia’s victory reshaped regional politics, dragging in new powers.
Earlier proposals limited Russia’s territorial gains, but by 1721 Sweden was exhausted and militarily weakened.
The treaty granted Russia Ingria, Estonia, Livonia, and Karelia, securing permanent Baltic access. Crucially, Russia retained these territories without having to concede southern lands, unlike the losses after the Treaty of the Pruth.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which treaty did Russia surrender Azov to the Ottoman Empire in 1711?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying the Treaty of the Pruth.
1 additional mark for stating the year 1711.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the Battle of Poltava (1709) was a significant turning point in the Great Northern War.
Mark scheme:
Up to 2 marks for describing the context (e.g., Charles XII’s invasion of Ukraine, Russian defensive preparations, Swedish weaknesses).
1–2 marks for identifying the decisive Russian victory and the decline of Sweden as a great power.
1 mark for explaining Russia’s emergence as a major European power.
1 mark for linking Poltava to Peter’s wider reforms and the strengthening of his international position.
Total: maximum 6 marks.
