OCR Specification focus:
‘Peter’s aims in the Baltic; war against Sweden, defeat at Narva, invasion of Ingria and Livonia; Swedish invasion 1707.’
Peter the Great’s Baltic ambitions and subsequent war with Sweden were central to transforming Russia into a European power. These struggles redefined Russian diplomacy, military strength, and territorial control.
Peter’s Strategic Aims in the Baltic
Peter the Great sought to secure access to the Baltic Sea, an essential route for trade and contact with Western Europe. Russia at the end of the 17th century was largely landlocked, limiting its economic and cultural exchange. Peter’s vision for modernisation demanded access to the sea, both for commerce and for strengthening Russia’s military presence in Europe.
Baltic access would enable Russia to build a permanent navy.
It would open routes for Western goods, technology, and expertise.
Control of Baltic ports symbolised Russia’s entry into European power politics.
His long-term goal was to challenge Sweden’s dominance in the Baltic, particularly under King Charles XII, whose empire stretched across much of Northern Europe.
The Great Northern War (1700–1721)
The war against Sweden formed the cornerstone of Peter’s Baltic policy. The conflict began in 1700 as part of a coalition with Denmark-Norway and Saxony-Poland, all of whom resented Sweden’s power.
Defeat at Narva, 1700
The first major clash came at Narva (1700), in present-day Estonia. Here, Peter’s new army, hastily trained and poorly disciplined, faced disaster.
Russian forces numbered approximately 35,000 but lacked effective coordination.
Charles XII’s professional Swedish army of around 8,000 executed superior tactics.
Despite Russian numerical advantage, a snowstorm aided the Swedes, and the Russians suffered a humiliating defeat.
Battle of Narva (1700): A crushing Swedish victory early in the Great Northern War, exposing Russian military weakness but spurring Peter’s resolve to reform his forces.
Although a setback, Narva convinced Peter of the need for comprehensive military reform. He reorganised the army, introduced new training systems, and improved weapon production.
Invasion of Ingria and Livonia
After Narva, Charles XII turned his attention to Poland, giving Peter time to regroup. By 1702, Russian forces began successful campaigns into Ingria and Livonia.
Ingria provided access to the Gulf of Finland, strategically vital for Russia’s naval ambitions.
The capture of key fortresses, including Noteborg (renamed Shlisselburg) in 1702 and Nyenskans in 1703, gave Russia a foothold.
Livonia was contested, but Russian consolidation gradually expanded in the following years.
It was during these campaigns that Peter founded St Petersburg (1703), built on the Neva River. Though initially a military outpost, it later symbolised Russia’s new European orientation.
Swedish Invasion of 1707
Charles XII eventually redirected his attention to Russia, launching an invasion in 1707. This campaign marked the most dangerous phase of the war for Peter.
Charles aimed to march through Poland and Lithuania into Russia, seeking to overthrow Peter.
The Swedish army, highly disciplined and battle-hardened, threatened Moscow itself.
Peter adopted a scorched earth strategy, retreating and destroying supplies to weaken the Swedish advance.
By 1709, this strategy culminated in the decisive Battle of Poltava, where Russian forces finally defeated Charles XII, although this lies beyond the strict focus of the current subsubtopic.
Key Factors in Russia’s Military Transformation
The Russian response to Sweden between 1700 and 1707 illustrates Peter’s ability to adapt.
Military reforms: Expansion of conscription, introduction of foreign officers, and improved artillery.
Economic mobilisation: Development of ironworks, particularly in the Urals, to sustain weapon supply.
Use of geography: Harsh winters and vast distances worked in Russia’s favour against Sweden’s stretched supply lines.
Ingria: A region between Lake Ladoga and the Gulf of Finland, crucial for access to the Baltic Sea and the eventual site of St Petersburg.
These changes ensured that Russia recovered from early defeat and gained the upper hand in the Baltic theatre.
Consequences up to 1707
By the time of the Swedish invasion, Peter had achieved partial success in his Baltic aims:
Russia had secured a strategic foothold in Ingria.
The foundation of St Petersburg symbolised Russia’s enduring commitment to the Baltic.
Despite initial defeats, the Russian army had improved significantly.
However, the Swedish invasion of 1707 still represented a severe threat, proving that Peter’s reforms were incomplete.
Thus, the period from Narva (1700) to the Swedish invasion (1707) demonstrates the fragile yet determined rise of Russia as a Baltic power. The struggle against Sweden forced Peter to reform his state and military apparatus, laying the foundation for future success.
FAQ
Sweden had acquired extensive territories during the 17th century, including Ingria, Livonia, Estonia, and Finland, creating a strong defensive buffer.
Its army was highly disciplined and professional, benefiting from years of warfare during the Thirty Years’ War and subsequent conflicts.
Charles XI and Charles XII centralised power, enabling efficient mobilisation of resources and rapid military campaigns.
Heavy snowstorms reduced Russian visibility and disrupted their lines, while Swedish troops advanced under cover of the storm.
The Russian siege works were poorly constructed, leaving them vulnerable.
The surrounding terrain, including marshes and rivers, hampered Russian manoeuvrability and contributed to their disorder during retreat.
The campaigns gave Peter control of the Neva River delta, a strategic site with access to the Gulf of Finland.
St Petersburg was established on captured Swedish territory, symbolising Russian permanence in the region.
The city’s foundation was both a military stronghold and a statement of Russia’s claim to Baltic power.
After Narva, Charles turned south to wage campaigns in Poland and Saxony.
This gave Peter time to reform his army, expand recruitment, and improve artillery production.
By focusing elsewhere, Charles indirectly allowed Russia to consolidate its hold in Ingria and begin constructing St Petersburg.
Ingria: Immediate access to the Gulf of Finland and the opportunity to build a new naval base. It provided a direct opening to the Baltic.
Livonia: Larger and agriculturally richer, offering long-term economic resources but less immediate naval utility.
Peter prioritised Ingria first because it fulfilled his urgent naval and trade objectives.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did the Battle of Narva take place, and which monarch led the Swedish forces to victory?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correct year: 1700
1 mark for naming the monarch: Charles XII
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why Peter the Great was determined to secure access to the Baltic and how this influenced Russian military action between 1700 and 1707.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 2 marks for explanation of Peter’s determination:
Desire for a ‘window to the West’ / access to Western trade.
Need for ports to support a permanent navy.
Breaking Swedish dominance in the Baltic.
Up to 4 marks for linking aims to Russian military action:
Reference to Narva (1700) as an initial attempt despite defeat.
Campaigns into Ingria and Livonia (1702 onwards), capture of Noteborg (1702) and Nyenskans (1703).
Foundation of St Petersburg (1703) as a Baltic base.
Preparations against Charles XII’s 1707 invasion (scorched earth strategy).
Levels of response:
1–2 marks: General description with little linkage between aims and military action.
3–4 marks: Some explanation of aims with partial linkage to military action.
5–6 marks: Clear explanation of aims fully connected to relevant military actions 1700–1707.
