OCR Specification focus:
‘the role of revolutionary leaders including Garibaldi and Mazzini; the reasons for the failure of nationalist and liberal protests.’
Italy’s revolutions of 1848–1849 exposed both the potential and limitations of nationalist leadership. Figures like Mazzini and Garibaldi inspired uprisings but faced insurmountable obstacles.
Giuseppe Mazzini and Ideological Leadership
Vision of Republicanism
Giuseppe Mazzini was the intellectual leader of Italian nationalism in the mid-nineteenth century. He promoted republicanism, believing that all Italians should be united in a democratic republic rather than under monarchical rule.
Republicanism: A political ideology advocating for a state without monarchy, governed by elected representatives and grounded in principles of liberty and equality.
Mazzini’s organisation, Young Italy (founded in 1831), aimed to foster national consciousness. Its goals were clear: to unify Italy, end foreign domination, and establish a constitution based on liberty.
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872), principal ideologue of Young Italy. His writings framed unification as a moral duty, prioritising education, civic virtue, and a republican nation. The portrait supports discussion of his methods of propaganda and clandestine organisation. Source
Strengths and Limitations
Mazzini was a charismatic writer and speaker who inspired a generation of students, intellectuals, and artisans. His emphasis on moral regeneration linked politics with duty and sacrifice.
However, his influence was limited:
He rejected monarchy, alienating potential allies such as Piedmont.
His conspiratorial methods often led to failure, as revolts lacked mass support.
Rural peasants, forming the majority, remained untouched by his vision.
Thus, Mazzini provided ideological fuel but lacked the organisational and military power to secure victory.
Giuseppe Garibaldi and Military Leadership
Background and Appeal
Giuseppe Garibaldi, in contrast, was a soldier and adventurer. His reputation was forged in South America, where he fought for republican causes. By 1848, he returned to Italy as a seasoned guerrilla commander.
Guerrilla warfare: A style of irregular combat involving small, mobile groups using surprise attacks, ambushes, and mobility against larger conventional forces.
Garibaldi’s appeal lay in his bravery and his romantic image as the hero of two worlds. His volunteers, often poorly equipped, were nonetheless highly motivated.
Giuseppe Garibaldi, in contrast, was a soldier and adventurer whose charisma and battlefield experience made him the most recognisable face of Italian radicalism.
Role in 1848–1849
Garibaldi played a prominent role in defending the Roman Republic of 1849, established after Pope Pius IX fled Rome. Alongside Mazzini, he resisted French troops sent to restore papal authority. His skill in delaying superior forces demonstrated his military genius.
Despite heroic resistance, Garibaldi’s forces were eventually overwhelmed. His retreat across Italy turned him into a legend, though militarily a defeat.
Reasons for Failure of Nationalist and Liberal Protests
The revolutions of 1848–1849 ultimately collapsed. Several interrelated factors explain this failure.
Lack of Unity
The movement was divided between liberals seeking constitutional monarchy and radicals like Mazzini pushing for republicanism.
Regionalism fragmented efforts, with uprisings in Lombardy, Venice, Naples, and Rome acting independently rather than as part of a coordinated national revolt.
Dependence on Unreliable Leaders
Charles Albert of Piedmont initially led war against Austria but retreated after military defeat at Custoza (1848) and Novara (1849).
His inconsistent leadership alienated radicals and demonstrated the weakness of monarchical support for nationalism.
Strength of Austria
Austria remained the dominant power in northern Italy, deploying well-trained armies under commanders like Radetzky.
Austrian victories in Lombardy crushed hopes of independence.
Austria’s military superiority, exemplified by Radetzky’s victories at Custoza (1848) and Novara (1849), broke Italian initiatives and restored conservative rule.
Political map of the Italian peninsula in 1843, highlighting the patchwork of states and Austria’s control in Lombardy–Venetia. This territorial fragmentation impeded coordination among revolutionaries and advantaged Austrian intervention. Source
Lack of Popular Support
The revolutions were mainly urban movements, driven by middle-class liberals and intellectuals.
The rural peasantry, forming the majority, had little interest in abstract nationalism and prioritised local concerns like taxation and land.
Foreign Intervention
France intervened to restore Pope Pius IX, defeating the Roman Republic in 1849.
Other European powers opposed radical republicanism, further weakening Italian efforts.
Organisational Weakness
Revolutionary groups lacked coordination, military supplies, and clear strategy.
Leaders like Mazzini offered ideology but no effective military plan, while Garibaldi could not win alone against professional armies.
Significance of the Leaders Despite Failure
Although the revolutions failed, Mazzini and Garibaldi’s roles were significant:
Mazzini established the intellectual foundation of nationalism, linking political liberation with moral duty.
Garibaldi embodied the heroic, popular dimension of the struggle, creating an enduring legend of sacrifice.
Both leaders demonstrated the passion for Italian unity but also highlighted the structural weaknesses—regionalism, foreign domination, and lack of social breadth—that made success impossible in the 1840s. Their legacy inspired future unification efforts led by Piedmont in the 1850s and 1860s.
FAQ
The Roman Republic was a short-lived experiment in republican government, established after Pope Pius IX fled Rome.
It was significant because:
It provided a practical test of Mazzini’s ideas of democracy and civic duty.
It attracted support from volunteers across Italy, including Garibaldi’s men.
Its suppression by French troops highlighted the vulnerability of nationalist movements to foreign intervention.
Although defeated, it became a powerful symbol of sacrifice for Italian unification.
At the start of his papacy (1846), Pius IX introduced moderate reforms such as freeing political prisoners and establishing a consultative council.
These early actions gave liberals hope he might lead Italy’s unification. However, his refusal to support war against Austria in 1848 and his later reliance on foreign powers marked a decisive break with nationalist movements.
This disillusionment contributed to the radicalisation of the revolts.
Garibaldi’s years fighting in Brazil and Uruguay gave him:
Mastery of guerrilla tactics such as ambush and mobility.
A reputation as a charismatic commander who inspired loyalty.
A belief in fighting for republican freedom across continents.
When he defended Rome in 1849, he applied these skills against larger French forces, prolonging resistance despite eventual defeat.
Women contributed through:
Nursing and supporting Garibaldi’s troops.
Writing pamphlets, newspapers, and poetry promoting nationalism.
Hosting political salons where ideas were exchanged.
Notable figures like Cristina Trivulzio di Belgiojoso helped organise supplies for the Roman Republic. While often overlooked, their participation widened nationalist culture beyond male leaders.
Charles Albert declared war on Austria in 1848, but his effort failed due to:
Inadequate military preparation compared with Austria’s professional armies.
Hesitation and poor decision-making at battles such as Custoza.
Distrust from radicals, who saw him as unreliable and self-interested.
His abdication after defeat at Novara in 1849 ended Piedmont’s leadership attempt, leaving nationalists without a monarch willing to sustain resistance.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name one revolutionary leader active in Italy during the revolutions of 1848–1849, and identify one role they played in these events.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correctly naming a relevant leader (e.g., Giuseppe Mazzini or Giuseppe Garibaldi).
1 mark for identifying a specific role in 1848–1849 (e.g., Mazzini as a republican ideologue in the Roman Republic, Garibaldi as military commander defending Rome).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why nationalist and liberal protests in Italy failed in 1848–1849.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained (maximum of 6 marks).
Creditworthy points include:
Lack of unity (division between republicans and monarchists; regional fragmentation).
Weak leadership (Charles Albert’s retreats; limited impact of Mazzini’s conspiracies).
Strength of Austria (Radetzky’s victories at Custoza and Novara).
Limited popular support (peasants uninterested in nationalism; urban-centred revolts).
Foreign intervention (France defeating the Roman Republic).
1–2 marks for basic identification of reasons.
3 marks per reason where there is clear explanation showing how the factor contributed to failure.
