OCR Specification focus:
‘Revolutions in Lombardy, Piedmont, Naples, Venice and Rome; role of Pope Pius IX and Charles Albert.’
The revolutions of 1848–1849 marked a pivotal moment in the struggle for Italian unification, as political unrest, nationalist fervour, and liberal ideals swept through the peninsula.
Background to the Revolutions
The revolutions across Italy in 1848–1849 were part of a wider European wave of upheaval. Political discontent was fuelled by economic hardship, resentment against Austrian dominance, and the desire for constitutional reform. Italy remained divided into multiple states, with Austria controlling Lombardy and Venetia, and conservative monarchies resisting liberal reforms elsewhere.
Caption: Political map of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (c.1815) under Austrian rule. This clarifies why Austrian garrisons dominated northern Italy before 1848. The map also shows extra context such as the German Confederation. Source
Key Causes
Austrian dominance: Austria’s presence in Lombardy-Venetia symbolised foreign oppression.
Economic distress: Poor harvests in the 1840s and rising food prices created popular unrest.
Nationalism: Intellectuals and groups promoted ideas of a unified Italy.
Liberalism: Calls for constitutions, representative government, and civil liberties grew louder.
Nationalism: The belief that people who share a common language, culture, and history should form an independent nation-state.
The revolutions were not uniform but varied in character, aims, and success across different Italian states.
Revolutions in Lombardy and Venetia
In Lombardy, protests erupted in Milan in March 1848. The famous “Five Days of Milan” saw citizens expel Austrian troops under Marshal Radetzky. The victory was short-lived, as Austria regrouped and later reasserted control.
In Venice, revolutionaries led by Daniele Manin proclaimed the Republic of San Marco after expelling Austrian forces. Despite strong local enthusiasm, the republic lacked sufficient military strength and outside support, falling to Austria in 1849.
Significance
Demonstrated the potential power of popular uprisings.
Highlighted the continuing might of Austrian forces.
Created opportunities for Piedmont-Sardinia to intervene.
Revolutions in Naples and Sicily
In January 1848, Sicilian rebels demanded independence from the Bourbon king, Ferdinand II, and proclaimed a provisional government. The rebellion spread to Naples, where Ferdinand granted a constitution under pressure. However, he later revoked it and crushed opposition with brutal force, earning the nickname “King Bomba.”
These revolts revealed both the strength of regional grievances and the fragility of concessions granted by conservative rulers.
Revolutions in Rome
The papal states experienced dramatic upheaval. Initially, Pope Pius IX appeared sympathetic to reform and nationalism, granting an amnesty to political prisoners in 1846 and introducing limited liberal measures.
However, as revolutions spread:
Reformers pressed for the Pope to lead a nationalist war against Austria.
Pius IX rejected the idea, insisting the Church should remain neutral.
This caused disillusionment among liberals and nationalists. Following unrest and the assassination of his minister Count Rossi, Pius fled Rome in November 1848. In February 1849, Giuseppe Mazzini and others declared the Roman Republic, which implemented progressive reforms such as universal male suffrage and land redistribution. French troops later crushed the republic, restoring papal rule.
Piedmont and Charles Albert
Among Italian rulers, Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia emerged as a central figure. Initially hesitant, he presented himself as a nationalist leader during the uprisings.
Charles Albert’s Actions
Declared war on Austria in March 1848 to support Lombardy and Venetia.
Operational map of the first phase (23 March–25 May 1848) of the First Italian War of Independence. It traces Piedmontese and Austrian movements around the Quadrilateral fortresses and into Lombardy. Source
Won some initial victories but was defeated at Custoza (1848) and Novara (1849).
Abdicated after Novara, passing the throne to his son, Victor Emmanuel II.
Abdication: The formal resignation of the throne by a monarch.
Charles Albert’s failures revealed the weaknesses of Italian military organisation but demonstrated the potential of Piedmont as a leading state in the nationalist cause.
Role of Pope Pius IX
Pope Pius IX initially raised hopes among reformers due to his early liberal gestures. However, his refusal to declare war on Austria marked a turning point.
His stance disappointed nationalists seeking papal leadership of a united Italy.
His flight from Rome exposed the vulnerability of papal authority.
His eventual reliance on foreign troops to restore order tarnished his reputation as a liberal figure.
Impact
The Pope’s actions illustrated the deep tensions between liberal-nationalist aspirations and the conservative interests of the Catholic Church. His rejection of nationalism significantly weakened papal prestige among radicals.
Overall Outcomes of the Revolutions
Although the revolutions failed militarily, they had lasting importance:
Austria reasserted control, but the revolts revealed widespread opposition to foreign domination.
Charles Albert’s intervention, despite defeat, positioned Piedmont as the strongest Italian state willing to resist Austria.
Pope Pius IX’s reversal alienated liberals and radicals, showing that the Church could not lead the nationalist cause.
The revolutions inspired future leaders like Garibaldi, Mazzini, and Cavour, whose efforts in the 1850s and 1860s would eventually bring unification closer.
FAQ
The Five Days of Milan (18–22 March 1848) became a symbol of popular resistance against Austrian rule. News of citizens forcing Radetzky’s army to retreat inspired uprisings elsewhere in the peninsula.
It also encouraged Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia to commit to war with Austria, framing Piedmont as the defender of Italian nationalism.
What role did foreign powers play in suppressing the Roman Republic?
The Roman Republic fell not to local rulers but to foreign intervention.
France, under Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, sent troops to restore papal authority.
Austria and Spain also deployed forces, though France dominated.
This highlighted the fragility of Italian revolutions and the determination of European powers to maintain the conservative order established at Vienna.
Manin, a lawyer and nationalist, became President of the Republic of San Marco.
His leadership emphasised civic responsibility, administrative order, and rallying support for independence. However, he struggled to gain wider Italian or foreign backing, and the republic’s resources were too limited to withstand Austria’s eventual reconquest.
Pius IX fled to Gaeta in late 1848, leaving the Papal States under revolutionary control.
In exile, he issued statements condemning liberalism and nationalism, marking his definitive shift towards conservatism. This retreat damaged his credibility as a potential leader of Italian unity and reinforced the divide between the Catholic Church and nationalist movements.
Charles Albert abdicated after defeat at Novara in March 1849, handing the throne to his son, Victor Emmanuel II.
This mattered because:
Victor Emmanuel maintained Piedmont’s constitutional monarchy, preserving liberal institutions.
Piedmont’s survival as an independent state kept alive hopes of future nationalist leadership.
The dynasty’s commitment to reform allowed Piedmont to play a central role in later unification efforts.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
In which two Italian cities did major uprisings take place in March 1848?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying Milan.
1 mark for identifying Venice.
(Maximum 2 marks.)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain the role of Charles Albert in the revolutions of 1848–1849 in northern Italy.
Mark scheme:
1–2 marks: Simple or generalised statements, e.g. “Charles Albert led Piedmont in the war against Austria” without further explanation.
3–4 marks: Some explanation of Charles Albert’s role, such as declaring war on Austria, supporting Lombardy and Venetia, and fighting in battles like Custoza. May mention abdication after defeat but with limited detail.
5–6 marks: Developed explanation showing good understanding. Points may include:
Declared war on Austria in March 1848 to support uprisings in Lombardy and Venetia.
Won some initial successes but was defeated at Custoza (1848) and Novara (1849).
His defeats showed Piedmont’s weaknesses but established it as the leading Italian state willing to resist Austria.
Abdicated in 1849, passing the throne to Victor Emmanuel II, shaping the future nationalist cause.
Credit should be given for clear, accurate knowledge used to explain significance.
