OCR Specification focus:
‘Nature and diversity of Native American society in the early 19th Century, Tecumseh’s Confederacy, First Seminole War and other ‘wars’; Jackson and the Indian Removal Act.’
The early 19th century was a period of transformation for Native American societies, marked by cultural diversity, political confederacies, violent conflicts, and major federal government interventions.
The Nature and Diversity of Native American Society
Native American societies in the early 19th century were not a single, uniform culture but a diverse collection of nations with distinct traditions, languages, and economies.
Diversity Across Regions
Eastern Woodlands Tribes: Groups such as the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole were often referred to as the Five Civilised Tribes due to their adoption of farming, literacy, and written constitutions.
Great Plains Tribes: Nomadic groups such as the Sioux and Cheyenne relied heavily on the buffalo economy for food, clothing, and tools.
Northwestern Tribes: Along the Pacific coast, societies like the Chinook and Haida developed complex fishing economies and unique artistic traditions.
Southwestern Tribes: The Navajo and Pueblo peoples developed sophisticated irrigation systems to sustain farming in arid conditions.
Buffalo Economy: The system of subsistence used by Plains tribes where the buffalo provided food, clothing, shelter, and tools, forming the foundation of their way of life.
The richness of Native societies was reflected in their governance systems, often built around councils of elders, kinship networks, and spiritual traditions.
Tecumseh’s Confederacy
A defining moment in early Native American resistance was the rise of Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader, and his brother Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet.
Aims of the Confederacy
To unite tribes across the Mississippi Valley in a pan-Indian alliance.
To resist land sales to white settlers and the U.S. government.
To revive traditional Native practices, rejecting European goods such as alcohol.
Tecumseh’s diplomatic skill allowed him to draw support from multiple tribes, but divisions and external pressures weakened the alliance.
A clean, labelled map of the approximate borders of Tecumseh’s Confederacy around the Great Lakes, circa 1810. Source
Collapse of the Confederacy
The Battle of Tippecanoe (1811), where U.S. forces under William Henry Harrison attacked Prophetstown, weakened Native morale.
Tecumseh’s death in 1813 during the War of 1812 ended hopes of a lasting confederation.
Pan-Indian Alliance: A political and military union of Native tribes across regions, aimed at resisting U.S. expansion and preserving Native lands and traditions.
The First Seminole War
The Seminole people of Florida represented another centre of resistance to U.S. expansion.
Causes of Conflict
U.S. hostility towards Seminole communities providing refuge to escaped enslaved African Americans.
Desire to annex Spanish Florida into U.S. territory.
Course of the War (1817–1818)
General Andrew Jackson invaded Florida, destroying Seminole villages and seizing Spanish forts.
Although never a formal declaration of war, this campaign forced Spain to negotiate the Adams–Onís Treaty (1819), ceding Florida to the U.S.
The Seminoles resisted further removal efforts in later decades, particularly during the Second Seminole War (1835–42).
Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act
The most transformative federal intervention in Native affairs during this era was Jackson’s Indian Removal Act of 1830.
Provisions of the Act
Granted the President authority to negotiate treaties exchanging Native lands in the East for territories west of the Mississippi River.
Justified as a means of “protecting” Native peoples from encroaching settlers.
Implementation and Impact
The Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832) Supreme Court cases tested Native sovereignty. The Court acknowledged some rights, but Jackson ignored rulings unfavourable to his policies.
The forced relocations, often under military escort, became known as the Trail of Tears, during which thousands of Cherokee, Creek, and other tribes died from exposure, disease, and starvation.
Trail of Tears: The forced removal of Native American nations from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to designated “Indian Territory” west of the Mississippi, resulting in widespread suffering and death.
Significance of Removal
Opened millions of acres for cotton cultivation, expanding slavery in the South.
Marked a major step in the erosion of Native sovereignty and cultural autonomy.
Established a federal precedent for treating Native nations as obstacles to expansion rather than as partners.
Other Native Conflicts and Resistance
Although Tecumseh’s Confederacy and the Seminoles are most prominent, other “wars” and uprisings defined Native resistance during the period.
Creek War (1813–14): Sparked by tensions within the Creek Nation between “Red Sticks” (traditionalists) and accommodationists; ended with Jackson’s victory at Horseshoe Bend.
Black Hawk War (1832): Resistance led by the Sauk leader Black Hawk against removal in Illinois; crushed by U.S. militia, with heavy Native casualties.
These conflicts demonstrated the persistence of Native resistance, but also the increasing dominance of U.S. military and political power.
FAQ
Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet, provided the religious and cultural foundation for the Confederacy.
He preached a return to traditional Native practices, rejecting alcohol, European goods, and Christianity. His visions and spiritual authority helped inspire followers, but his military misjudgements, particularly at Tippecanoe, damaged credibility.
Supporters argued it was a humanitarian policy, claiming removal would protect Native peoples from settler violence.
They also promoted the idea that Native societies could not coexist with the rapid expansion of farming and industry in the East. Removal was therefore framed as both inevitable and beneficial, despite its devastating consequences.
Florida, under Spanish rule, was seen by the U.S. as a weakly governed frontier.
It served as a refuge for runaway enslaved people.
Seminole control threatened southern slaveholding states.
Its coastline and proximity to the Gulf of Mexico gave it economic and military value.
Many Native societies relied on councils of elders and consensus decision-making, prioritising kinship and communal responsibility.
Leadership was often situational, with war chiefs and peace chiefs taking roles depending on circumstances. This flexible approach contrasted with the U.S. emphasis on written constitutions, fixed offices, and centralised authority.
Although it failed, Tecumseh’s attempt at a pan-Indian alliance became a model of unity.
Later resistance leaders, such as those in the Black Hawk War and Seminole resistance, drew inspiration from his vision. His legacy highlighted the possibility of cooperation across diverse tribes against U.S. expansion, even if lasting unity proved difficult.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two of the Five Civilised Tribes who were affected by Andrew Jackson’s Indian Removal Act.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct tribe named (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers: Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why Tecumseh’s Confederacy collapsed in the early 19th century.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each explained reason (maximum 6 marks).
To gain full marks, students must provide two distinct reasons with explanation.
Indicative content (not exhaustive):
Battle of Tippecanoe (1811): Prophetstown was attacked by U.S. forces under William Henry Harrison; this weakened morale and discredited Tenskwatawa’s leadership. (1 mark for identifying, 1 mark for detail, 1 mark for explanation).
Death of Tecumseh (1813): His death in the War of 1812 removed a unifying leader and led to the collapse of the pan-Indian alliance. (1 mark for identifying, 1 mark for detail, 1 mark for explanation).
Other valid reasons may include: divisions between tribes, dependence on British support during the War of 1812 which ended with British withdrawal, or difficulty sustaining long-term unity across diverse groups.
Maximum 6 marks.
