OCR Specification focus:
‘Bureau of Indian Affairs; treaties and the ‘Indian Wars’ of 1860s/70s’
The 1860s and 1870s saw escalating conflict between the Federal Government, Native American tribes, and settlers, driven by westward expansion and cultural misunderstanding.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
Origins and Role
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) was created in 1824 as a division of the War Department before transferring to the Department of the Interior in 1849.
Its purpose was to administer relations with Native Americans, focusing on treaties, reservations, trade, and assimilation policies.
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA): A federal agency established to manage Native American affairs, oversee reservations, and enforce treaties between tribes and the United States.
By the mid-19th century, the BIA played a central role in implementing government policies designed to confine Native peoples to reservations and to promote Americanisation.
Criticisms of the Bureau
The BIA faced widespread criticism for corruption, inefficiency, and its often brutal enforcement of policies. Problems included:
Mismanagement of supplies meant for reservations.
Dishonest Indian Agents exploiting federal funds.
Frequent failure to uphold promises made in treaties.
These failures contributed significantly to mistrust between Native tribes and the Federal Government.
Treaties and Reservation Policy
The Treaty System
From the early 19th century until the Treaty of Medicine Lodge (1867) and the Fort Laramie Treaty (1868), the U.S. pursued a treaty-making system with tribes.
Engraving depicting the Medicine Lodge Treaty council, 1867. U.S. officials and tribal leaders meet outdoors to negotiate land cessions and reservation boundaries. The image captures the ceremonial aspect of treaty negotiations. Source
Treaty: A formal, legally binding agreement between sovereign groups. In this context, agreements between the U.S. government and Native American tribes, usually involving land cessions in return for protection and annuities.
Key aspects of treaty-making in the 1860s and 1870s included:
Land cessions: Tribes were pressured into surrendering vast territories.
Reservations: Tribes were confined to smaller areas of land, supposedly protected by federal law.
Promises of aid: The U.S. pledged food, education, and supplies in exchange for tribal compliance.
Breakdown of Treaties
Despite their legal weight, treaties were often violated:
Federal agents and settlers ignored agreed borders.
Military enforcement was inconsistent and violent.
The discovery of resources such as gold in the Black Hills (1874) led to immediate treaty breaches.
By 1871, Congress ended the treaty system, declaring Native tribes no longer sovereign nations but wards of the state, further undermining tribal autonomy.
The ‘Indian Wars’ of the 1860s and 1870s
Causes
The wars arose from a combination of factors:
Encroachment of settlers into tribal lands, driven by mining, farming, and the railways.
Broken treaties, which undermined Native trust.
Cultural misunderstanding: The nomadic lifestyle of Plains tribes conflicted with American ideals of private property and farming.
Military responses to Native resistance, often disproportionate and indiscriminate.
Major Conflicts
The period was defined by significant wars and confrontations, including:
Dakota War (1862): Sparked by food shortages and broken promises in Minnesota; ended with mass execution of Dakota men.
Sand Creek Massacre (1864): A brutal attack on a Cheyenne and Arapaho village in Colorado by U.S. forces, killing women and children.
Red Cloud’s War (1866–1868): The Lakota Sioux resisted U.S. fort-building along the Bozeman Trail; culminated in the Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) granting them the Black Hills.
Map illustrating the Bozeman Trail corridor with U.S. forts and tribal territories. The red line traces the trail, intersecting hunting grounds and provoking Lakota resistance. A clear visual of why fort-building triggered conflict. Source
Great Sioux War (1876–77): Triggered by gold in the Black Hills; included the Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876), where Sioux and Cheyenne forces defeated Custer.
Military Strategy and Native Resistance
The U.S. Army employed a total war strategy, including:
Destroying Native villages.
Burning food stores.
Slaughtering buffalo herds to undermine subsistence.
Despite courageous resistance, Native tribes were disadvantaged by limited numbers, disunity, and lack of resources compared to the industrial might of the United States.
Consequences of the Indian Wars
Native American Impact
Loss of land: The reservation system severely restricted movement and hunting grounds.
Decline of culture: Forced assimilation policies targeted traditional customs, languages, and religions.
Devastating casualties: Repeated massacres and battles reduced Native populations.
Federal Government Policy Shift
After the wars, Native peoples were increasingly seen as wards of the state. Policies hardened towards assimilation and Americanisation, leading to:
The end of the treaty system in 1871.
Increased emphasis on reservation schools and Christian missions.
Foundations for later measures such as the Dawes Act (1887).
Legacy
The BIA, treaties, and wars of the 1860s and 1870s symbolised the transition from negotiation to coercion. They illustrate how the Federal Government’s drive for westward expansion came at the expense of Native sovereignty, ultimately leading to the destruction of traditional Native American societies.
FAQ
The BIA was responsible for distributing food, clothing, and annuities to tribes confined on reservations.
It also oversaw education through mission schools and attempted to promote farming practices. However, mismanagement and corruption meant many supplies were withheld or sold for profit. This deepened Native dependency while eroding traditional lifestyles.
The treaty recognised Sioux ownership of the Black Hills and closed the Bozeman Trail forts, marking a rare victory for Native resistance.
However, the U.S. government ignored its own obligations once gold was discovered in the Black Hills in the 1870s. This violation directly led to the Great Sioux War, showing how treaties offered only temporary security.
Plains tribes often used:
Mobility on horseback for swift raids.
Knowledge of terrain for ambushes.
Dispersed groups rather than large set-piece battles.
The U.S. Army, by contrast, favoured fortified posts, columns of infantry and cavalry, and supply lines. These differences gave tribes early advantages but limited long-term effectiveness against industrial resources
Congress declared Native tribes were no longer sovereign nations but wards of the state.
This meant future agreements were no longer negotiated as binding treaties but passed as federal statutes. It symbolised the erosion of Native independence, making tribes legally dependent on federal authority and weakening their ability to challenge U.S. expansion.
Sand Creek in 1864 shocked Native communities because women, children, and elderly were deliberately targeted.
The brutality radicalised many tribes, leading to increased support for armed resistance. Leaders like Red Cloud and Sitting Bull drew upon such events to unify warriors, framing survival as dependent on resisting U.S. soldiers and settlers more forcefully.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two major treaties made with Native American tribes during the 1860s that were central to federal westward expansion policy.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct treaty named (max 2 marks).
Treaty of Medicine Lodge (1867) (1 mark)
Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) (1 mark)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why the treaties of the 1860s and 1870s failed to prevent conflict between the United States and Native American tribes.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each developed explanation, focusing on knowledge and clarity.
Broken promises and corruption: Federal agents and the Bureau of Indian Affairs often failed to deliver promised supplies or mismanaged annuities, causing mistrust and resentment. (1–3 marks depending on detail and explanation)
Continued settler encroachment: Despite treaty boundaries, settlers, miners, and railroads moved into Native land, undermining agreements and leading to armed resistance. (1–3 marks depending on detail and explanation)
Level guidance:
1–2 marks: Simple or generalised point, limited detail.
3 marks: Clear explanation with accurate factual detail and link to conflict.
