OCR Specification focus:
‘civil war, the end of the Shogunate and the restoration of the Emperor Meiji in 1868.’
The civil war of 1868 marked a decisive turning point in Japanese history, dismantling centuries of Tokugawa rule and ushering in the Meiji Restoration, a new imperial era.
Background to the Civil War
The Tokugawa Shogunate, established in 1603, had governed Japan under a system of strict feudal hierarchy. Its authority, however, was increasingly undermined by foreign intrusion, economic strain, and ideological divisions.
By the 1850s and 1860s, Japan faced:
Unequal treaties imposed by Western powers, which humiliated the Shogunate.
Samurai discontent, as many warriors felt marginalised and resentful of shogunal concessions to foreigners.
Economic disruption, with inflation and rural unrest intensifying instability.
These pressures generated a crisis of legitimacy for the Shogunate, with many domains (han) shifting their loyalty towards the Emperor as the symbolic guardian of national unity.
Growing Resistance to the Shogunate
Sonnō jōi Ideology
A powerful rallying cry against the Shogunate emerged in the form of sonnō jōi (“Revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians”).
Sonnō jōi: A political slogan used in the 1860s advocating loyalty to the Emperor and resistance to Western encroachment, often directed against the Shogunate’s compromises.
This ideology fused traditional loyalty to the Emperor with xenophobic nationalism, encouraging opposition groups to unite under imperial authority. Radical samurai in Satsuma, Chōshū, and Tosa domains adopted this position.
Rise of the Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance
Initially, the powerful domains of Satsuma and Chōshū held different views. However, hostility towards the Shogunate drew them together in the Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance (1866). With military modernisation and Western-supplied arms, these domains posed a formidable challenge to the Bakufu (the shogunal government).
Outbreak of Civil War
Decline of Tokugawa Authority
By 1867, Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu attempted limited reforms but struggled to reassert authority. Recognising the shift in power, he formally “returned” governing rights to the Emperor in a political manoeuvre known as taisei hōkan.
Taisei hōkan: The voluntary “return of power to the Emperor” by the Shogun in 1867, intended to preserve Tokugawa influence within a new political framework.
However, this act failed to satisfy reformist domains, which insisted on the complete dismantling of Tokugawa power.
Boshin War (1868–1869)
The Boshin War erupted in early 1868 as Tokugawa forces clashed with imperial troops.
A simplified campaign map of the Boshin War showing key battles and the advance of imperial (red arrows) and Tokugawa naval movements (blue arrows). Labels highlight decisive nodes such as Toba-Fushimi, Edo, Aizu, Sendai, and Hakodate. The clean design supports chronological and geographic understanding without extraneous detail. Source
Key features included:
Battle of Toba-Fushimi (January 1868): Imperial forces, supported by Satsuma and Chōshū, decisively defeated Tokugawa armies near Kyoto.
Symbolic Imperial Support: Troops fought under the imperial standard, presenting the conflict as a legitimate restoration of imperial authority rather than rebellion.
Northern Resistance: Tokugawa loyalists regrouped in northern domains and in Hokkaidō, where they briefly established the Republic of Ezo.
Despite resistance, imperial forces advanced steadily, aided by superior modern weaponry and broader support from domains disillusioned with Tokugawa leadership.
End of the Shogunate
By mid-1869, Tokugawa forces surrendered, and the Shogunate as an institution was formally abolished. The fall of Tokugawa Yoshinobu symbolised the collapse of the old feudal order.
The defeat of the Shogunate represented more than a military victory: it was a transfer of sovereignty, with the Emperor becoming the focal point of a new centralised state.
The Meiji Restoration
Restoration of the Emperor
The restoration of the Emperor Meiji in 1868 marked the beginning of profound political and social transformation.
Studio portrait of Emperor Meiji by Uchida Kuichi, the only photographer granted imperial sittings in 1872–73. The Western-style military dress projects the legitimacy and modernising ethos of the new regime after 1868. Source
Although real power lay with a small group of oligarchs, the symbolism of imperial rule was central to legitimising reform.
Key Aspects of the Restoration
Political Centralisation: Authority shifted from regional domains to a new imperial government in Tokyo.
Modernisation Goals: Leaders pursued military, economic, and institutional reforms to strengthen Japan against Western powers.
End of Feudal Structures: The restoration undermined the power of the daimyo and samurai, laying foundations for a new social and political order.
Meiji Restoration: The political revolution of 1868 that overthrew the Tokugawa Shogunate and restored formal power to the Emperor, initiating Japan’s modernisation.
The Restoration was framed not as a rupture but as a return to ancient imperial rule, enhancing its legitimacy and enabling rapid restructuring.
Consequences of the Civil War
The civil war and subsequent restoration had far-reaching consequences:
Abolition of the Tokugawa system, ending centuries of military rule by shoguns.
Elevation of the Emperor as both a political and symbolic authority.
Path to modernisation, as the new leadership embraced Western technology and institutions while asserting Japan’s independence.
Emergence of nationalism, with loyalty to the Emperor becoming central to Japanese identity.
The war’s outcome decisively shifted Japan from a fragmented feudal society towards a modern centralised nation-state, capable of competing on equal terms with foreign powers.
FAQ
Although foreign nations did not directly intervene in battles, they influenced the outcome through trade in modern arms. Both imperial and Tokugawa forces purchased rifles, artillery, and warships from Britain, France, and the United States.
Notably, French advisers supported Tokugawa troops, particularly in Hokkaidō during the Republic of Ezo. However, Britain leaned towards the imperial side, giving the Satsuma and Chōshū domains a key advantage in access to weapons.
The Republic of Ezo was established in Hokkaidō by Tokugawa loyalists in 1869. It was the first attempt to create a democratic republic in Japan, modelled loosely on Western systems.
Its existence demonstrated continued resistance, but its defeat at the Battle of Hakodate marked the definitive end of Tokugawa influence. The episode highlighted the Emperor’s consolidation of authority over all territories.
Imperial troops carried the Emperor’s brocade banner, a powerful visual claim to legitimacy. Fighting under this standard portrayed the conflict not as rebellion but as the rightful restoration of ancient rule.
This symbolic strategy encouraged wavering domains to defect to the imperial side, emphasising loyalty to the Emperor rather than allegiance to the Shogun
Naval clashes played a crucial part, especially in the northern campaign. Tokugawa loyalists relied heavily on French-built warships to defend Hokkaidō.
However, the imperial navy, bolstered by modern vessels and foreign support, gradually secured dominance. Control of sea routes allowed imperial forces to transport troops and supplies efficiently, ensuring victory in the Battle of Hakodate.
In the immediate aftermath, samurai still retained social status, but their role was diminishing. Many had sided with the Emperor and expected rewards for their service.
However, the foundations of samurai privilege were eroded. Imperial leaders began restructuring military and administrative systems, reducing reliance on hereditary warriors. This marked the first stage in the eventual abolition of the samurai as a distinct class.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
In which year did the Battle of Toba-Fushimi take place, marking the opening of the Boshin War?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year as 1868.
No marks for incorrect dates.
Maximum: 2 marks.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why the Tokugawa Shogunate was unable to maintain power during the civil war of 1868–69.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 3 marks per reason, depending on depth of explanation:
Reason 1 (up to 3 marks):
Identification of a factor (1 mark), e.g. failure of Shogun Yoshinobu’s taisei hōkan to preserve Tokugawa influence.
Development of explanation (1–2 marks), e.g. despite returning power, reformist domains insisted on the complete end of Tokugawa rule, showing his manoeuvre failed to secure support.
Reason 2 (up to 3 marks):
Identification of a factor (1 mark), e.g. superior modern weaponry and organisation of the Satsuma-Chōshū alliance.
Development of explanation (1–2 marks), e.g. imperial forces used modern arms supplied from the West, defeating Tokugawa troops at Toba-Fushimi and elsewhere, demonstrating military weakness of the Shogunate.
Other valid reasons may include:
Loss of legitimacy due to unequal treaties and foreign concessions.
Growing support for the Emperor and rise of sonnō jōi ideology.
Weak Tokugawa leadership and internal fragmentation.
Maximum: 6 marks.
