OCR Specification focus:
‘Aims and motives of the ‘Big Four’; the terms and impact of the Peace Treaties (Versailles, St Germain, Trianon, Neuilly, Sèvres and Lausanne), the reaction in Germany.’
The Paris Peace Conference shaped the post-war settlement, reflecting conflicting aims of victorious powers and resulting in treaties that transformed Europe, sowing both hope and resentment.
The Paris Peace Conference of 1919
The Paris Peace Conference met in January 1919 following the defeat of the Central Powers. Its task was to negotiate a settlement that would reshape Europe, determine responsibility for the war, and establish conditions for lasting peace. Dominating proceedings were the ‘Big Four’ leaders: Woodrow Wilson (USA), Georges Clemenceau (France), David Lloyd George (Britain), and Vittorio Orlando (Italy). Their differing priorities set the stage for compromises and tensions.
The ‘Big Four’—Lloyd George, Orlando, Clemenceau and Wilson—pose during the Paris Peace Conference (27 May 1919). Their contrasting priorities framed negotiations and the compromises that followed. Source
Aims and Motives of the Big Four
Woodrow Wilson (United States)
Wilson sought a peace based on idealism and self-determination.
His Fourteen Points (1918) emphasised democracy, open diplomacy, free trade, arms reduction, and the establishment of a League of Nations.
He opposed harsh punishment for Germany, fearing it would foster future aggression.
Self-determination: The principle that nations and ethnic groups should be free to govern themselves, creating states reflecting cultural or national identity.
Georges Clemenceau (France)
Clemenceau demanded security and revenge.
France had suffered enormous casualties and devastation; Clemenceau wanted Germany weakened militarily and economically.
His goals included reparations, the return of Alsace-Lorraine, and the demilitarisation of the Rhineland.
David Lloyd George (Britain)
Lloyd George was caught between public opinion and strategic needs.
British voters demanded Germany be punished—“Hang the Kaiser” was a popular slogan.
Yet, Lloyd George also wanted Germany’s economy to recover for trade and to prevent the spread of Bolshevism.
He sought to protect British imperial and naval power while maintaining a balance of power in Europe.
Vittorio Orlando (Italy)
Orlando aimed to secure territorial rewards promised in the Treaty of London (1915), such as South Tyrol and Dalmatia.
Italy’s demands clashed with Wilson’s principle of self-determination, leading to disputes and Italy’s partial withdrawal from negotiations.
The Terms of the Peace Treaties
Treaty of Versailles (Germany, 1919)
Territorial losses: Alsace-Lorraine returned to France; Saar placed under League control; Polish Corridor created, dividing Germany from East Prussia; colonies seized as mandates.
Military restrictions: Army limited to 100,000 men, no conscription, no air force, navy reduced, Rhineland demilitarised.
War guilt clause (Article 231): Germany accepted sole responsibility for the war.
Reparations: Set at 132 billion gold marks in 1921.
Delegates sign the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors on 28 June 1919. The ceremony symbolised both Allied victory and the punitive settlement imposed on Germany. Source
Treaty of St Germain (Austria, 1919)
Empire dissolved: Recognised independence of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Yugoslavia.
Territorial changes: South Tyrol and Istria given to Italy; Dalmatian coast to Yugoslavia.
Austria forbidden from uniting with Germany.
Treaty of Trianon (Hungary, 1920)
Hungary lost over two-thirds of its territory and population.
Land awarded to Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia.
Significant economic disruption and resentment followed.
Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria, 1919)
Bulgaria lost land to Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania.
Military restricted and reparations imposed.
Treaty of Sèvres (Turkey, 1920)
Ottoman Empire dismantled: Smyrna and Eastern Thrace to Greece; Arab territories placed under British and French mandates.
Harsh terms caused nationalist revolt under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
Treaty of Lausanne (Turkey, 1923)
Revised terms after Turkish resistance: Recognised sovereignty of new Turkish Republic.
Restored much territory, annulling Sèvres.
Impact of the Peace Treaties
On Germany
Deep resentment at the “Diktat” of Versailles.
War guilt clause seen as unjust humiliation.
Reparations fuelled economic hardship and hyperinflation.
Loss of territory and military restrictions damaged national pride.
Political extremism, both left and right, gained traction in this climate.
On Austria-Hungary
Dissolution of the Habsburg Empire created numerous successor states, many unstable and ethnically divided.
Economic dislocation due to loss of markets and resources.
On Hungary
Harsh territorial losses fostered long-term grievances, particularly against neighbours such as Romania.
Nationalist revisionism became a key political force.
On Bulgaria
Punitive territorial and economic terms contributed to instability, though less severe than on Germany or Hungary.
On Turkey
Initial humiliation under Sèvres gave way to revival under Atatürk after Lausanne, marking the emergence of a modern Turkish state.
On International Relations
The settlements created a fragile peace.
The League of Nations was established, reflecting Wilson’s vision, but without the USA its authority was weakened.
France gained security but remained anxious about German recovery.
Britain sought to maintain stability, but public opinion grew less committed to enforcement of the treaties.
Italy, dissatisfied with its gains, spoke of a “mutilated victory”, undermining cooperation with allies.
The Paris Peace Conference and resulting treaties fundamentally reshaped Europe, but by creating widespread dissatisfaction, they laid foundations for future conflict.
Political map of Europe in 1923, showing the new frontiers and states created after the First World War. Borders reflect the settlements imposed by the Paris peace system and subsequent revisions in Turkey (Lausanne). Source
FAQ
Applying self-determination was challenging because Europe’s ethnic groups were highly intermixed. Many new borders, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, created minorities within new states.
Additionally, Allied leaders often prioritised strategic or economic interests over principle. For example, Poland’s borders left large non-Polish minorities, while Italy’s demands conflicted with the idea of ethnic self-rule.
Hungary lost around two-thirds of its territory and population, leaving significant Hungarian minorities in neighbouring states.
This created enduring grievances, especially towards Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, where ethnic Hungarians faced discrimination. The resulting instability and nationalist anger contributed to revisionist politics in Hungary throughout the interwar years.
Lloyd George wanted Germany punished, but he also recognised Britain’s dependence on European trade.
A weakened German economy risked damaging British exports.
Excessive reparations threatened to destabilise Germany, potentially spreading Bolshevism westward.
Britain’s global empire and naval supremacy were more important than territorial adjustments in Europe.
His balancing act reflected both domestic pressure for retribution and economic pragmatism.
The Treaty of Sèvres imposed severe territorial losses on the Ottoman Empire, giving land to Greece and placing Arab provinces under mandates.
This triggered Turkish nationalist resistance led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. After military successes, the Allies were forced to negotiate a new settlement at Lausanne in 1923, recognising Turkey’s sovereignty and restoring much of its lost territory.
Although Italy gained South Tyrol, Istria and parts of Dalmatia, many promises from the 1915 Treaty of London were not fulfilled.
Italy did not receive Dalmatia’s coastline or Fiume.
Wilson opposed Italian claims under self-determination.
Italy expected larger gains from the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.
This perception of betrayal fostered political instability and fuelled nationalist and fascist movements in the 1920s.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two territorial changes imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct territorial change (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers include:Alsace-Lorraine returned to France (1 mark).
Polish Corridor created / territory given to Poland (1 mark).
Saar placed under League of Nations control (1 mark).
Danzig made a Free City under League control (1 mark).
Loss of overseas colonies to League mandates (1 mark).
(Any two = 2 marks).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain why the aims of the ‘Big Four’ at the Paris Peace Conference often conflicted with each other.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 6 marks.
1–2 marks: General description of aims with little or no explanation of conflict.
3–4 marks: Some explanation of conflicting aims, with limited development or examples.
5–6 marks: Clear, developed explanation of conflicting aims, supported with specific detail.
Indicative content (credit relevant examples, max 6 marks total):
Wilson wanted peace based on self-determination and the Fourteen Points, but Clemenceau wanted harsh punishment of Germany (1–2 marks).
Clemenceau sought security through German disarmament and reparations, while Lloyd George wanted a strong Germany for trade and as a bulwark against Bolshevism (1–2 marks).
Orlando pressed for territorial gains promised in 1915, but Wilson opposed them under self-determination (1–2 marks).
Public opinion in Britain and France demanded retribution, conflicting with Wilson’s idealism (1–2 marks).
Marks are awarded for the quality of explanation and supporting detail, not the number of points listed.
