OCR Specification focus:
‘the reasons for and nature of the League of Nations; the activities of the League of Nations and its response to international and social problems, 1920–1935, including Corfu Incident, Greek-Bulgarian’
The League of Nations was conceived as a mechanism for international cooperation, peace, and dispute resolution. Its creation symbolised both idealism and pragmatism in post-war diplomacy.
Origins and Reasons for the League of Nations
The League of Nations was established in 1919 as part of the Treaty of Versailles, reflecting the determination of world leaders to prevent another catastrophic conflict like the First World War. The initiative was strongly associated with President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which promoted collective security, disarmament, and international arbitration.
Motivations for its creation
Preventing future wars through a system of collective security: nations would act together to resist aggression.
Promoting disarmament: the reduction of armaments was viewed as essential to long-term peace.
Encouraging negotiation and arbitration: disputes would be resolved through diplomacy, not military action.
Addressing global problems: international cooperation was needed to manage economic, humanitarian, and social issues that transcended national boundaries.
Membership
The League initially included most Allied nations, but crucially:
The United States did not join due to Senate opposition, undermining its global authority.
Defeated powers like Germany were excluded at first, and Russia was not invited because of its Bolshevik regime.
This selective membership weakened its credibility from the outset.
Collective Security: A principle whereby nations agree to defend each other against aggression, making war against one effectively war against all.
The Nature of the League of Nations
The League was designed as a supranational body intended to oversee global diplomacy, but its structure revealed both strengths and weaknesses.
Structure
Assembly: all member states, meeting once a year, with equal voting rights.
Council: smaller body of major powers (initially Britain, France, Italy, and Japan), meeting more frequently to resolve disputes.
Permanent Court of International Justice: based at The Hague, providing legal rulings.
Secretariat: administrative arm of the League.
Specialist agencies: focused on health, refugees, labour, and economic issues.
Limitations in nature
Decisions had to be unanimous, stalling decisive action.
Lack of a standing military force meant reliance on member states’ willingness to act.
The absence of the USA, and later withdrawals by Japan, Germany, and Italy, eroded legitimacy.
Activities of the League of Nations (1920–1935)
Despite weaknesses, the League undertook both political conflict resolution and social problem-solving.
Political Disputes
Aaland Islands (1921): dispute between Finland and Sweden resolved peacefully.
Upper Silesia (1921): territorial division between Germany and Poland mediated successfully.
Mosul (1924): arbitration awarded Mosul to Iraq under British mandate, accepted by Turkey.
These successes illustrated the League’s potential when dealing with smaller states and less powerful actors.
Major Crises
Corfu Incident (1923): Italy occupied Corfu after the murder of Italian officials in Greece.
A topographic map of Corfu situating the island off north-west Greece in the Ionian Sea. The featured place-names and coastlines support understanding of the theatre of the 1923 crisis. Source
The League demanded withdrawal but Italy, backed by Mussolini’s forcefulness, evaded full responsibility. This revealed the League’s weakness when confronting major powers.
Greek-Bulgarian Dispute (1925): a Greek incursion into Bulgaria was quickly halted after League intervention, demonstrating effectiveness in lesser conflicts.
Manchurian Crisis (1931–1933): Japan invaded Manchuria, creating the puppet state of Manchukuo. The League condemned the action but lacked enforcement power; Japan simply withdrew from the League.
Abyssinian Crisis (1935–1936): Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia exposed the futility of League sanctions. Britain and France prioritised alliances over enforcement, fatally damaging credibility.
Social and Humanitarian Work
The League’s non-political activities often proved more successful:
International Labour Organisation (ILO) improved working conditions and tackled child labour.
Health Committee fought epidemics and advanced international public health cooperation.
Refugee organisations assisted displaced people, including prisoners of war.
Slavery Commission worked towards abolishing slavery globally.
These achievements reinforced the League’s role as a humanitarian institution, even if its political authority was limited.
Mandate System: Territories taken from defeated powers were governed by victorious nations under League supervision, supposedly until they were ready for self-rule.
The League’s Declining Effectiveness
By the mid-1930s, the League’s authority had diminished significantly:
Great powers increasingly pursued self-interest, bypassing collective security principles.
The Depression fuelled nationalism, protectionism, and expansionist policies that undermined international cooperation.
Aggressive states such as Japan, Italy, and Germany tested and exposed the League’s inability to enforce decisions.
Britain and France, as leading members, lacked the will to sacrifice national priorities for international enforcement.
Overall character
The League’s nature was a paradox: idealistic in conception but limited in practice, successful in humanitarian work but failing in security crises. Its reliance on goodwill, absence of the USA, and lack of enforcement mechanisms made it vulnerable to exploitation.
FAQ
Geneva was chosen because Switzerland had maintained neutrality during the First World War, making it a symbol of peace and impartiality.
The city was also well-connected by rail and communications, which helped facilitate international diplomacy. Additionally, Switzerland’s traditions of humanitarianism and hosting international organisations reinforced the League’s image as a cooperative body rather than an extension of any single great power.
The League set up a Disarmament Commission tasked with reducing weapons globally.
Several conferences were held, the most notable being the 1932–34 Geneva Disarmament Conference.
Proposals included limiting tanks, banning chemical weapons, and restricting air forces.
However, disagreements between nations and Germany’s insistence on parity with other powers led to repeated failures.
Without a binding enforcement mechanism, disarmament remained more an aspiration than a reality.
In the early 1920s, the League was backed by widespread optimism about creating lasting peace. Newspapers, politicians, and peace movements promoted it as a moral force.
Public opinion often pressured governments to respect the League’s ideals. However, by the 1930s, disillusionment grew due to repeated failures, such as Manchuria and Abyssinia, reducing enthusiasm and weakening political will to act collectively.
The League primarily relied on economic sanctions to punish aggressor states.
These could include banning trade, halting loans, and freezing financial assets.
In practice, sanctions were rarely effective because not all countries applied them consistently.
For example, during the Abyssinian Crisis, Britain and France avoided sanctioning oil exports to Italy, undermining their impact.
The lack of American participation further reduced the effectiveness of economic measures.
The League created agencies to address global humanitarian challenges.
The Nansen Passport system helped stateless refugees, especially Russians displaced by revolution and civil war.
The Health Organisation coordinated responses to epidemics like typhus and cholera.
The League worked to combat human trafficking and slavery, making gradual progress in areas such as West Africa.
These efforts had enduring influence and are often seen as the League’s most lasting successes.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Japan withdraw from the League of Nations following the Manchurian Crisis?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying 1933.
0 marks for incorrect year.
No partial credit for vague answers (e.g., “the 1930s”).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why the League of Nations struggled to deal effectively with major powers in the period 1920–1935.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks per reason (maximum 6).
1 mark for identification of a valid reason.
1 mark for explanation of how this reason limited the League’s effectiveness.
1 mark for use of accurate supporting detail or example.
Acceptable points include:
Absence of the USA: The League lacked global authority and resources without American membership (e.g., failure to enforce economic sanctions effectively).
Unanimous decision-making: Any single nation could veto action, preventing swift responses to crises.
Reliance on moral persuasion and sanctions: Without a military force, the League could not compel compliance (e.g., Italy in the Abyssinian Crisis).
Self-interest of Britain and France: They prioritised their own national concerns over enforcing League principles (e.g., appeasing Mussolini after Corfu or Abyssinia).
Maximum marks require two well-developed reasons, each with clear explanation and relevant evidence.
