OCR Specification focus:
‘the Conference of Ambassadors; disarmament, the Washington and London Naval Agreements’
The early interwar years witnessed intense diplomatic negotiations as states sought peace through disarmament and new international frameworks, while attempting to manage unresolved disputes.
The Conference of Ambassadors
Origins and Purpose
The Conference of Ambassadors was established in 1919 as an outgrowth of the Paris Peace Conference. Its main role was to oversee the implementation of the peace treaties, particularly Versailles and its related settlements. Unlike the League of Nations, which was more formalised and universal, the Conference was dominated by the Great Powers—France, Britain, Italy, and Japan, with the USA participating unofficially.
The purpose of the Conference was to:
Resolve territorial disputes left unsettled by the peace treaties.
Monitor compliance with treaty obligations, especially reparations and border demarcations.
Act swiftly in crises where the League was considered too slow or unwieldy.
Activities and Decisions
The Conference handled numerous sensitive cases:
Polish borders: It intervened in the disputes over Upper Silesia and Vilna, aiming to stabilise Eastern Europe.
Map of partition proposals for Upper Silesia (1921) considered prior to the Conference of Ambassadors’ decision. Source
Corfu Incident (1923): The Conference’s role overlapped with that of the League, exposing tensions between power politics and collective security.
German disarmament enforcement: It helped ensure compliance with restrictions on the size of the German army and limitations on weaponry.
Although effective in some cases, the Conference faced criticism for being dominated by French interests and for sidelining the League of Nations.
Disarmament Efforts in the 1920s and 1930s
The Concept of Disarmament
Disarmament: The reduction or limitation of military forces and weapons, intended to promote peace and reduce the likelihood of future wars.
Disarmament was central to post-war diplomacy. Both the League of Nations Covenant and various treaties emphasised reducing armaments, yet genuine progress was limited due to national self-interest.
The Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922)
The Washington Naval Conference, held in the United States, marked the first major attempt at naval disarmament.
Its achievements included:
The Five-Power Treaty (Britain, USA, Japan, France, Italy): Set a naval tonnage ratio of 5:5:3:1.67:1.67 for capital ships.
The Four-Power Treaty (Britain, USA, Japan, France): Pledged mutual respect for Pacific possessions.
The Nine-Power Treaty: Guaranteed China’s sovereignty and the Open Door Policy.
The agreements were significant in halting the expensive naval arms race and established the principle of agreed limitations. However, Japan soon resented its inferior naval ratio, sowing future tensions.
The Geneva Protocols and League’s Role
During the 1920s, the League of Nations attempted to create broader frameworks for disarmament. The 1925 Geneva Protocol sought to outlaw chemical warfare and reaffirmed the Kellogg-Briand Pact principle of banning war as an instrument of policy. Still, real reductions in armaments remained elusive, as nations continued to prioritise security.
The London Naval Conference (1930)
The London Naval Conference was convened to extend and modify Washington’s agreements:
President Herbert Hoover with the U.S. delegation to the London Naval Conference (1930). Their negotiations produced new limits on cruisers and submarines, showing the high-level political backing for disarmament diplomacy. Source
Britain, the USA, and Japan agreed on further restrictions to cruiser and submarine tonnage.
Italy and France resisted full participation, highlighting divisions among European powers.
It temporarily eased tensions in naval rivalry but failed to prevent long-term rearmament.
The Geneva Disarmament Conference (1932–1934)
Perhaps the most ambitious attempt, the Geneva Disarmament Conference sought to achieve comprehensive reductions across land, sea, and air forces. However, it collapsed due to:
German demands for military equality with other powers.
French insistence on maintaining military superiority to protect against German aggression.
Withdrawal of Germany (1933) and later Italy (1937).
This failure marked the end of serious interwar disarmament efforts and foreshadowed renewed militarisation.
Impact and Limitations of Disarmament
Achievements
The Washington Naval Agreements provided temporary stability in the Pacific and represented genuine cooperation between great powers.
The London Naval Conference extended these principles into the 1930s, delaying major naval expansions.
Disarmament conferences illustrated a strong public and political desire for peace after the devastation of the First World War.
Limitations
Agreements largely excluded land forces, where the greatest risks of future wars lay.
Enforcement mechanisms were weak, relying on goodwill rather than binding guarantees.
States prioritised national security and economic interests over collective restraint.
The rise of revisionist powers, particularly Nazi Germany and militarist Japan, undermined earlier agreements.
Broader Context
Disarmament was always entangled with wider diplomatic and strategic concerns:
For France, maintaining military superiority over Germany was essential.
For Britain, reducing costly naval expenditure was a financial imperative.
For the USA, leadership in naval agreements reinforced its emerging global role.
Ultimately, while the Conference of Ambassadors and naval treaties reflected efforts to stabilise the post-war order, they exposed deep fractures in international relations that no agreement could permanently resolve.
FAQ
The Conference of Ambassadors often acted more quickly than the League, particularly in sensitive border disputes.
It was dominated by the Great Powers, which meant decisions could reflect their interests rather than collective international opinion.
At times, such as during the Corfu Incident, the Conference overshadowed the League, leading critics to argue that it undermined the League’s authority.
Upper Silesia was rich in coal and industry, making it economically valuable to both Germany and Poland.
The 1921 plebiscite showed divided loyalties, with rural areas supporting Poland and urban areas preferring Germany.
The Conference ultimately sanctioned a partition, but the dispute highlighted the challenges of balancing self-determination with economic and strategic concerns.
Initially, the treaty system improved relations by recognising Japan’s Pacific interests while limiting naval rivalry.
However, Japan soon resented the 5:5:3 ratio, which it saw as discriminatory compared with Britain and the USA.
This dissatisfaction planted long-term tensions, which grew during the 1930s as Japan sought greater autonomy and expansion in Asia.
The Great Depression influenced attitudes, as governments sought to cut military expenditure.
Britain was especially keen to limit costly naval building.
The USA also wished to reduce financial burdens.
Japan, however, demanded recognition as a first-rate power, complicating negotiations.
Economic pressures thus encouraged talks but also fuelled disagreements over status and parity.
While public opinion strongly favoured disarmament, governments prioritised national security.
Germany demanded equal military status, which France refused due to fears of renewed aggression.
Britain attempted compromise, but differing strategic priorities prevented agreement.
The rise of Hitler in 1933, and Germany’s withdrawal, finally ended hopes of meaningful reductions.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two treaties agreed at the Washington Naval Conference (1921–22).
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct treaty named, up to 2 marks.
Acceptable answers:The Five-Power Treaty
The Four-Power Treaty
The Nine-Power Treaty
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why attempts at disarmament in the 1920s and 1930s were limited in success.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks per reason, maximum 6 marks.
Award 1 mark for identifying a valid reason, 1 mark for describing it, and 1 mark for explaining how it limited success.
Indicative content (answers may include but are not limited to):
National self-interest: Nations, especially France, prioritised their own security over collective disarmament; France refused to reduce forces while Germany was still seen as a threat.
Weak enforcement mechanisms: Agreements such as the Washington and London Naval Treaties lacked robust enforcement, meaning states could ignore or withdraw from obligations.
Dissatisfaction with ratios: Japan resented its inferior naval tonnage ratio (5:5:3), creating tensions and reducing cooperation.
Rise of revisionist powers: Germany’s demands for military equality and eventual withdrawal from the Geneva Disarmament Conference undermined prospects of lasting agreements.
Maximum marks are awarded where the student identifies, describes, and clearly explains the significance of two separate reasons.
