OCR Specification focus:
‘criticism in the Duma; the events of March 1917; Kerensky, the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet’
The February Revolution of 1917, culminating in March, was driven by growing discontent with Tsar Nicholas II, political criticism in the Duma, and mass unrest.
Criticism in the Duma
The Duma’s Origins and Role
The State Duma was Russia’s parliamentary body created after the 1905 Revolution. Although initially a concession to demand for reform, its power was deliberately limited by the Fundamental Laws (1906), which reaffirmed the Tsar’s autocratic authority.
Fundamental Laws: A set of statutes issued in 1906 that reasserted Tsar Nicholas II’s control, giving him power to dissolve the Duma, veto legislation, and control the armed forces.
By the First World War, the Duma had developed into a focal point for moderate opposition to the monarchy. Members criticised both the incompetence of the Tsar’s ministers and the disastrous effects of war.
The Progressive Bloc
In August 1915, deputies from the Kadets (Constitutional Democrats), Octobrists, and other moderates formed the Progressive Bloc, demanding a government of national confidence to handle the war effort. Their proposals included:
A coalition cabinet responsible to the Duma, rather than the Tsar
Greater efficiency in the supply of arms and food
Increased rights for labour organisations and the recognition of civil freedoms
Nicholas II rejected these proposals outright, deepening the rift between the monarchy and political elites.
Criticism of Nicholas II’s Leadership
From September 1915, Nicholas II took personal command of the army. This move left Tsarina Alexandra and her controversial adviser Rasputin in charge of domestic politics. Duma deputies criticised:
Ministerial instability: constant reshuffling of ministers weakened administration
Influence of Rasputin: seen as corrupt and destabilising
Disregard for advice: Nicholas refused to cooperate with the Duma, worsening relations
By late 1916, even conservative deputies demanded reform, with some openly discussing the possibility of removing the Tsar.
The Events of March 1917
Economic and Social Crisis
Russia’s war effort led to massive economic dislocation:
Food shortages in cities caused by disrupted transport and poor harvests
Inflation eroded wages while the cost of basic goods soared
Fuel shortages left cities cold and factories idle
Military defeats disheartened the public and soldiers alike
Strikes and protests escalated in Petrograd (St Petersburg), particularly around International Women’s Day on 23 February (8 March, New Style).
A large International Women’s Day demonstration in Petrograd on 8 March 1917 (New Style). Women workers and broader crowds marched for bread and change, accelerating the collapse of public order. This real-world scene contextualises the timeline that culminated in the Tsar’s abdication. Source
The February Revolution
Key stages of unrest included:
23 February: Women workers demonstrated for bread; joined by striking factory workers
24–25 February: Strikes escalated into mass protests; over 200,000 in Petrograd
26 February: The Tsar ordered troops to suppress demonstrations; some soldiers opened fire, but many units mutinied
27 February: The Petrograd garrison joined the crowds; this was decisive as armed forces now supported revolution
28 February–2 March: The Tsar attempted to return to Petrograd but was blocked by railway workers; under pressure from generals and the Duma, he abdicated on 2 March 1917
Abdication: The formal renunciation of the throne. Nicholas II abdicated on 2 March 1917 in favour of his brother, Grand Duke Michael, who refused power.
Collapse of the Romanov Dynasty
The abdication ended over 300 years of Romanov rule. Power now shifted rapidly to new political bodies in Petrograd.
Kerensky, the Provisional Government, and the Petrograd Soviet
The Provisional Government
After Nicholas’ abdication, a Provisional Government was established, initially led by Prince Lvov.
Meeting of the first Russian Provisional Government in March 1917, including Prince Georgy Lvov and Alexander Kerensky. This image anchors the transition from autocracy to provisional rule. The identification of specific ministers is additional detail not required by the syllabus but aids visual recognition. Source
It was formed from leading Duma members, mainly liberals and moderates. Its key aims included:
Establishing civil liberties (freedom of speech, assembly, press)
Promising land reform and a Constituent Assembly to decide Russia’s future
Continuing the First World War, to honour Russia’s alliances
Provisional Government: Temporary body created in March 1917 to govern Russia until a democratically elected Constituent Assembly could determine the permanent political system.The Petrograd Soviet
On 27 February 1917, workers and soldiers formed the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies, which quickly became the alternative power centre in the capital.
Its main features included:
Representation of workers and soldiers
Control over communications, transport, and supplies in Petrograd
Issuance of Order No. 1, which instructed soldiers to obey the Soviet before the Provisional Government, undermining military discipline
Dual Power
The relationship between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet became known as Dual Power:
The Provisional Government had official authority but lacked enforcement power without Soviet approval
The Petrograd Soviet had popular support and practical control, especially over soldiers and workers
The Role of Kerensky
Alexander Kerensky, a member of both the Provisional Government and the Soviet, emerged as a key figure. His dual position gave him influence across both bodies. By July 1917, Kerensky replaced Lvov as head of the Provisional Government, but in March he acted as a bridge between liberals and socialists.
Dual Power: The co-existence of the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet from March to October 1917, marked by tensions and competing claims to legitimacy.
Kerensky’s prominence foreshadowed the instability of the new regime, as neither body could fully impose authority over a restless and war-weary population.
FAQ
By the end of 1916, frustration with Nicholas II’s refusal to cooperate with the Duma and his reliance on Alexandra and Rasputin had reached breaking point.
Several conservative deputies and aristocrats discussed the idea of forcing Nicholas to abdicate or removing Rasputin through violence. The mood reflected elite despair at the regime’s inability to manage the war or the home front effectively.
Order No. 1, issued in March 1917, stated that soldiers should obey the Petrograd Soviet when orders conflicted with the Provisional Government.
This undermined the traditional chain of command, as officers lost authority while rank-and-file soldiers gained more power. It contributed to the disintegration of discipline in the army and helped secure soldier support for revolutionary change.
Railway workers refused to transport Nicholas II back to Petrograd when unrest peaked in March 1917.
Their action effectively isolated the Tsar from the capital, preventing him from reasserting authority or suppressing the uprising. This refusal symbolised the loss of control over vital infrastructure and accelerated his abdication.
Prince Georgy Lvov was a respected liberal nobleman with a reputation for moderation and public service.
He was seen as acceptable to both liberal politicians and some conservatives, which made him a compromise choice. His lack of strong party affiliation also helped him appear as a neutral leader during the fragile early days of the Provisional Government.
The mutiny of the Petrograd garrison on 27 February 1917 was decisive.
Armed soldiers joined demonstrators, tipping the balance of power against the regime.
Their participation provided the revolution with weapons, organisation, and legitimacy.
Without the loyalty of the garrison, the Tsar could no longer rely on force to restore order, ensuring the revolution’s success.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which month and year did Tsar Nicholas II abdicate?
Mark scheme
1 mark for correct month: March
1 mark for correct year: 1917
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why criticism in the Duma weakened Tsar Nicholas II’s authority by March 1917.
Mark scheme
Up to 3 marks per reason, maximum 6 marks in total.
Award 1 mark for identifying a valid reason, 1 mark for description of the reason, and 1 mark for explaining how it weakened the Tsar’s authority.
Indicative content (any two of the following, or other valid points):
Progressive Bloc demands: The Duma called for a government of national confidence in 1915, but Nicholas refused, alienating moderate political elites (up to 3 marks).
Ministerial instability: Frequent reshuffling of ministers and influence of Rasputin caused the Duma to lose faith in the regime, highlighting incompetence (up to 3 marks).
Rejection of cooperation: Nicholas dismissed Duma criticism and rejected reform proposals, reinforcing perceptions of autocracy and detachment from Russia’s problems (up to 3 marks).
