OCR Specification focus:
‘return of exiles and the April Theses; July Days; Kornilov Revolt.’
The revolutionary year of 1917 saw exiled Bolsheviks return, Lenin’s radical April Theses transform party policy, and the July Days test Bolshevik strength and survival.
Return of the Exiles
Context of Exile
During the reign of Nicholas II, many revolutionary leaders lived abroad, escaping repression after failed uprisings and political activity. Exile refers to enforced or voluntary living outside Russia to avoid arrest or persecution.
The February Revolution of 1917, which forced Nicholas II to abdicate, created a political opening. The new Provisional Government allowed exiles to return. Key figures included:
Lenin (leader of the Bolsheviks) returning from Switzerland.
Trotsky, who travelled from America via Canada.
Other prominent Bolsheviks such as Kamenev and Zinoviev.
The ‘Sealed Train’
Lenin’s journey back was facilitated by Germany.
Germany hoped Lenin would destabilise Russia, weakening the Eastern Front in the First World War.
Lenin travelled in a sealed train through Germany to Petrograd in April 1917.
This association with Germany would later be used by his opponents to discredit him as a “German spy”.
The arrival of the exiles injected fresh leadership into the revolutionary movement and brought radical energy into a fluid political situation.
Lenin returned from exile via a German-facilitated ‘sealed train’ that carried him from Switzerland through Germany to Petrograd in early April 1917.
Map of Lenin’s 1917 journey in the sealed train from Zurich to Petrograd. The route emphasises the German transit and the final approach via Finland Station. The broader European base map is included for orientation. Source
The April Theses
Lenin’s Speech
Upon his return on 3 April 1917, Lenin delivered his April Theses, a programme outlining Bolshevik aims. It rejected compromise with the Provisional Government.
April Theses: A set of radical directives issued by Lenin in April 1917 calling for immediate socialist revolution, Soviet power, and withdrawal from war.
Key Points of the Theses
Lenin’s theses shocked even fellow Bolsheviks with their radicalism. The demands included:
End the war immediately without annexations or indemnities.
No support for the Provisional Government, which Lenin labelled bourgeois.
All power to the Soviets, transferring authority from parliamentary to workers’ councils.
Nationalisation of land and redistribution under peasant control.
Banks under state control, merging into a single national bank.
Industrial workers’ control of production and distribution.
On 17 April (4 April O.S.) he presented the April Theses at the Tauride Palace, demanding ‘All power to the Soviets’ and immediate withdrawal from the war.
Impact
Many Bolsheviks were initially hesitant, preferring cooperation with the Provisional Government.
Lenin, however, insisted that compromise was betrayal, framing the Bolsheviks as the only party advocating true revolutionary change.
By summer 1917, the April Theses had become official Bolshevik policy, increasing their appeal among workers, soldiers, and peasants dissatisfied with the war and economic hardship.
The July Days
Background
By July 1917, tensions had escalated in Petrograd. Conditions included:
Ongoing economic dislocation, inflation, and food shortages.
Continuing military defeats, eroding morale.
Growing radicalisation among soldiers and workers, especially within Petrograd garrisons.
Events of the July Days
From 3–6 July 1917, spontaneous demonstrations erupted in Petrograd.
Armed soldiers, sailors, and workers demanded “All Power to the Soviets” echoing Lenin’s April Theses.
The uprising lacked clear leadership; Lenin and the Bolsheviks were divided on how to respond.
The Provisional Government, supported by loyal troops, suppressed the demonstrations.
Violent clashes left hundreds dead or wounded.
Between 3–7 July 1917, mass armed demonstrations by soldiers, sailors and workers erupted in Petrograd, centred on Nevsky Prospekt and the Tauride Palace.
Scene on Nevsky Prospekt during the July Days (4 July 1917) shows crowds and armed units confronting each other. The image visualises the shift from protest to violent clashes that undermined Bolshevik credibility in the short term. Source
Bolshevik Involvement
The Bolsheviks were blamed for instigating the unrest.
Party offices were raided, and Bolshevik newspapers closed.
Lenin, fearing arrest, fled to Finland.
Trotsky and other leaders were imprisoned.
July Days: A series of armed demonstrations in Petrograd (3–6 July 1917) driven by workers and soldiers demanding Soviet power, suppressed by the Provisional Government.
Consequences
The July Days appeared to weaken the Bolsheviks:
Their leaders were scattered or in exile.
Propaganda depicted Lenin as a traitor working with Germany.
The Provisional Government reasserted temporary control.
However, deeper discontent persisted. The Provisional Government failed to solve Russia’s key problems — land reform, peace, and food supply. This ensured that Bolshevik slogans retained their resonance.
Significance of April Theses and July Days
April Theses
Established a clear revolutionary alternative to liberal or moderate socialist politics.
Demonstrated Lenin’s ability to shift party direction rapidly.
Laid ideological groundwork for Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917.
July Days
Highlighted the fragility of the Provisional Government’s control.
Showed the volatility of soldiers and workers in Petrograd.
Provided lessons for the Bolsheviks: Lenin concluded that power could not be seized prematurely without proper organisation.
Links to Wider Revolutionary Process
The return of exiles brought experienced leaders back to Russia at a critical moment.
The April Theses radicalised Bolshevik policy, aligning it with popular demands.
The July Days tested Bolshevik credibility and underscored both the risks and potential of mass unrest.
These developments directly shaped the trajectory leading to the October Revolution of 1917.
FAQ
Germany hoped that Lenin would destabilise Russia’s government and encourage withdrawal from the First World War. This would allow Germany to focus resources on the Western Front.
The sealed train ensured Lenin had minimal direct contact with German citizens, reducing claims of collaboration, though political opponents still branded him a “German spy.”
The Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries dismissed the theses as unrealistic and dangerous, preferring cooperation with the Provisional Government.
Even within the Bolsheviks, figures such as Kamenev and Zinoviev were initially sceptical. Only after weeks of debate did the party formally adopt Lenin’s radical demands.
The Kronstadt sailors were among the most militant groups in July 1917.
They marched into Petrograd, heavily armed, to demand Soviet power.
Their radicalism lent weight to the demonstrations but also alarmed more moderate socialists.
Their actions strengthened the government’s claim that the unrest threatened state security.
Lenin was accused of treason and collusion with Germany following the July Days. Arrest seemed imminent as the government closed Bolshevik newspapers and targeted leaders.
Finland, then part of the Russian Empire, provided relative safety while keeping Lenin close enough to influence events in Petrograd. From exile, he wrote key works and urged caution until conditions favoured revolution.
The Bolsheviks realised that seizing power prematurely risked disaster. Mass support was volatile and lacked coordination.
Key lessons included:
The need for disciplined planning and central leadership.
Avoiding reliance on spontaneous protests.
Waiting for the Provisional Government to weaken further before acting.
These lessons directly shaped the careful preparation for the October Revolution
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
In which month and year did Lenin present the April Theses to the Petrograd Soviet?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correct month: April
1 mark for correct year: 1917
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two consequences of the July Days for the Bolsheviks.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each developed consequence.
Consequence 1: Bolsheviks discredited and weakened (1 mark). Lenin accused of being a German agent (1 mark). Party offices raided, leaders such as Trotsky arrested (1 mark).
Consequence 2: Despite temporary repression, Bolsheviks maintained popular slogans and appeal (1 mark). Discontent with the Provisional Government continued, keeping Bolshevik relevance (1 mark). Lenin drew lessons on the need for careful timing of revolution (1 mark).
