OCR Specification focus:
‘rise and appeal of Nazism, role of propaganda and Hitler; Papen, Schleicher and ‘backstairs intrigue’; Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor’
The collapse of Weimar democracy was shaped by the rising appeal of Nazism, fuelled by propaganda, Hitler’s leadership, political intrigue, and elite miscalculations about power transfer.
The Rise and Appeal of Nazism
Early Strength and Party Growth
The National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP) grew from a fringe group into a mass movement during the 1920s and early 1930s. Initially marginalised after the failed Munich Putsch (1923), the Nazis rebuilt as a legal, national party under Hitler’s strategic leadership.
Several factors enhanced their appeal:
Economic distress: The Great Depression after 1929 devastated Germany, creating mass unemployment and poverty.
Nationalist resentment: Many Germans resented the Treaty of Versailles, which Nazis condemned as a symbol of humiliation.
Anti-communism: Fear of communism drove elites, industrialists, and the middle class to support the Nazis as a bulwark against revolution.
Promise of unity: The Nazi slogan of a Volksgemeinschaft (people’s community) promised to transcend class conflict.
The Role of Propaganda
Propaganda was central to Nazi success.
Directed by Joseph Goebbels, the Reich propaganda machine used modern techniques to saturate society with Nazi imagery and messages.
Key methods included:
Mass rallies: Large-scale, orchestrated events created a sense of power and inevitability.
Posters and slogans: Simple, repetitive slogans like “Arbeit und Brot” (Work and Bread) resonated with the unemployed.
Radio and press: Innovative use of radio broadcasts spread Hitler’s speeches widely.
Targeted messages: Different groups received tailored promises—farmers were promised protection, workers jobs, and the middle class stability.
Propaganda: The systematic spread of political ideas through media, rallies, and symbols, designed to influence public opinion and behaviour.
Propaganda was effective not only in winning votes but also in creating an image of Hitler as the embodiment of Germany’s salvation.
The Appeal of Hitler
The personal role of Adolf Hitler was decisive. He presented himself as a charismatic leader offering strong, decisive governance in contrast to Weimar’s perceived weakness.
Key aspects of his appeal:
Oratory: Hitler’s speeches electrified audiences, blending emotion with promises of renewal.
Cult of personality: Portrayed as the Führer, a messianic figure above party politics.
Ambiguity of policy: By avoiding detailed programmes, the Nazis attracted a broad coalition of support.
Führerprinzip: The Nazi belief in the absolute authority of a single leader, whose will was the guiding principle for the nation.
This combination of charisma and ideology made Hitler central to the Nazi rise.
Political Instability and Elite Miscalculations
Papen, Schleicher, and Backstairs Intrigue
Weimar politics in the early 1930s was dominated by instability and elite intrigue. President Paul von Hindenburg increasingly ruled through emergency decrees under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, bypassing parliamentary democracy.
Franz von Papen (Chancellor, 1932) attempted to stabilise politics by ruling without Reichstag majority support, relying on presidential authority.
Kurt von Schleicher, a general and political operator, sought to build coalitions through negotiation but alienated both Papen and Hindenburg.
Kurt von Schleicher (1932) in a contemporary press portrait. He served as Chancellor (Dec 1932–Jan 1933) and his political missteps set the stage for Papen’s intrigue and Hitler’s path to the Chancellorship. Source
Backstairs intrigue: Behind-the-scenes manoeuvring by conservative elites aimed at controlling the political system led to misjudgements about Hitler. Papen, in particular, believed that bringing Hitler into government would tame him.
Backstairs Intrigue: Secret political negotiations and manipulations among elites, often conducted privately and without public scrutiny.
These manoeuvres fatally undermined parliamentary democracy and paved the way for authoritarian solutions.
Hitler’s Appointment as Chancellor
By late 1932, the Nazi Party was the largest in the Reichstag, though lacking an overall majority. Attempts to marginalise Hitler failed because:
The Nazis retained mass popularity despite temporary setbacks.
No stable majority could be formed without their participation.
Elite figures like Papen convinced Hindenburg that Hitler could be controlled if surrounded by conservative ministers.
On 30 January 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany.
Group portrait of the first Hitler cabinet formed on 30 January 1933, with Hitler (centre) and Franz von Papen (right, seated) as Vice-Chancellor. The lineup underscores conservative backing that enabled Hitler’s elevation. Extra ministers shown exceed the syllabus focus but help identify the cabinet’s elite composition. Source
This was not the result of an outright Nazi electoral victory but of elite miscalculation and the collapse of democratic resistance. Papen believed he would be the “vice-chancellor in control,” but in reality, Hitler rapidly outmanoeuvred his supposed allies.
FAQ
The Nazis employed a strategy of flexible messaging. To industrial workers, they promised jobs and protection from communism. To farmers, they offered agricultural subsidies and protection against imports. The middle classes were assured stability and defence of traditional values. Business leaders were courted with pledges to oppose trade unions and communism.
This broad appeal, without a detailed fixed programme, allowed the Nazis to unite very different constituencies under one banner.
The Great Depression left six million Germans unemployed by 1932. The Weimar government appeared powerless, resorting to unpopular austerity measures and emergency decrees.
The Nazis exploited the situation by promising employment, national revival, and a rejection of the Versailles restrictions. This gave them a credible image of action, contrasting with the political paralysis of rival parties.
Hindenburg regarded Hitler as a radical agitator, lacking the dignity of a statesman. He distrusted Hitler’s background, describing him dismissively as a “Bohemian corporal.”
Hindenburg’s preference was to appoint conservative aristocrats or military figures, such as Brüning, Papen, or Schleicher, who reflected his social and political outlook. Only when no other viable coalition could be formed, and under pressure from advisers like Papen, did he finally agree.
Papen had lost credibility after his failure to secure support in the Reichstag. By aligning with Hitler, he sought a way back into power.
He believed that Hitler’s popular support could stabilise government while he, as Vice-Chancellor, and other conservatives would retain real authority. This calculation proved disastrously wrong.
Instead of relying on parliamentary debate and coalition-building, political decisions were made privately between elites around Hindenburg.
Papen lobbied Hindenburg directly, bypassing the Reichstag.
Schleicher tried to manipulate parties and unions to build support behind closed doors.
Business and military leaders influenced appointments through personal connections.
This reliance on intrigue eroded democratic legitimacy and sidelined popular representation, opening the door for authoritarian solutions such as Hitler’s appointment.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Give two reasons why Nazi propaganda was effective in attracting support during the early 1930s.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each valid reason identified, up to 2 marks.
Possible answers include:Use of simple and direct slogans such as “Work and Bread” (1 mark).
Targeted messages tailored to different groups, e.g., farmers, workers, and the middle class (1 mark).
Mass rallies that created a sense of power and unity (1 mark).
Effective use of modern media such as radio and posters (1 mark).
The cultivation of Hitler’s image as a charismatic and decisive leader through propaganda (1 mark).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain why Franz von Papen played an important role in Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor in January 1933.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic statements showing limited understanding. May mention Papen’s role without detail or context.
Examples: “Papen helped Hitler become Chancellor.” (1 mark) / “He supported Hitler.” (2 marks).Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation showing sound knowledge and understanding. Provides one or two reasons with some elaboration.
Examples: “Papen believed he could control Hitler if he was made Chancellor, so persuaded Hindenburg to appoint him.” (3 marks).
“Papen’s own political position was weak, so he saw an alliance with Hitler as a way to retain influence.” (4 marks).Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation showing thorough understanding. Multiple well-explained reasons given, with clear reference to events and Papen’s role.
Examples: “Papen played a vital role because, after losing power himself, he persuaded Hindenburg that Hitler could be controlled if surrounded by conservative ministers. Papen underestimated Hitler, believing he would remain Vice-Chancellor in control, but his miscalculation directly contributed to Hitler’s appointment.” (5–6 marks).
