OCR Specification focus:
‘the Danelaw; Scandinavian rural and urban settlements; English rural and urban settlements (including York).’
The development of Viking and Anglo-Saxon settlements was central to shaping governance, social order, and patterns of control in northern Europe during the Viking Age.
A clear map of England and Wales around 878, highlighting the Danelaw in relation to Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria. Use this to orient where Scandinavian law and custom operated after ninth-century treaties. The map includes broader political areas beyond the settlements discussed, but aids spatial understanding of the topic. Source
The Danelaw
The Danelaw refers to the regions of England that came under Viking control after the raids and settlements of the late 9th century. It represented not just territorial possession but also a distinctive system of law, governance, and settlement organisation.
Danelaw: The area of northern and eastern England under Viking control where Scandinavian laws, customs, and administration prevailed over Anglo-Saxon traditions.
The Danelaw demonstrated how Viking settlers imposed their own legal traditions and social structures, often blending with existing Anglo-Saxon practices. Key aspects included:
Local assemblies known as things, where disputes were settled and laws upheld.
Distinctive land-tenure practices, introducing concepts such as the sokeman (a semi-independent free tenant).
A heavy emphasis on customary law rather than written codes.
These institutions provided continuity and legitimacy for Scandinavian settlers while accommodating the existing Anglo-Saxon population.
Scandinavian Rural Settlements
Viking settlers relied heavily on rural farming communities, which were the backbone of Scandinavian livelihood. These settlements typically featured:
Scattered farmsteads rather than nucleated villages, reflecting Scandinavian traditions.
Longhouses, combining living space with areas for livestock and storage.
A reliance on mixed farming, including arable crops and animal husbandry.
These structures reflected Viking adaptation to English land while maintaining elements of homeland traditions.
Longhouse: A rectangular wooden structure typical of Scandinavian settlements, used for domestic life, animals, and storage under one roof.
The persistence of this model reveals the importance of continuity in Viking rural organisation and the adaptability of their society in a new landscape.
Exterior view of a reconstructed Viking longhouse at Trelleborg. Note the elongated plan and timber construction typical of Scandinavian rural sites. This is a Danish reconstruction (not English), but it accurately illustrates the longhouse form referenced in the syllabus. Source
Scandinavian Urban Settlements
Viking influence also extended to the growth of urban centres. Scandinavian settlers were skilled traders and shipbuilders, and their arrival accelerated urbanisation in several regions. Key features included:
Establishment of fortified towns (burhs), often located along rivers or coasts for trade.
Growth of craft-working quarters, producing jewellery, weapons, and textiles.
Development of marketplaces that integrated Viking trade networks with continental Europe.
These urban centres were not only hubs of commerce but also critical in maintaining Viking political control within the Danelaw.
English Rural Settlements
While Scandinavians introduced their own rural practices, much of Anglo-Saxon England maintained older traditions of open-field farming and nucleated villages. English rural settlements were typically characterised by:
Centralised villages surrounded by strip fields cultivated collectively.
Strong integration into the manorial system, where land was controlled by local lords.
Greater reliance on parish structures, linking villages to ecclesiastical authority.
The contrast with Scandinavian farming traditions illustrates the cultural diversity within Danelaw England.
English Urban Settlements: The Case of York
One of the most significant examples of urban development was the city of York, known under Viking rule as Jórvík. York’s transformation illustrates the Viking impact on English urban life.
Under Viking control, York became a major trading hub, linking England with Scandinavia, Ireland, and the wider North Sea world.
The city’s population grew rapidly, incorporating both Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian inhabitants.
Evidence of minting coins demonstrates York’s centrality to Viking economic power.
The establishment of new street plans and workshops shows deliberate urban planning.
York serves as a key case study of how Viking settlement policies reshaped English towns.
Institutions and Governance within Settlements
Across both rural and urban settlements, governance and social order relied on distinct institutions. These included:
The thing: Assemblies for free men to deliberate and enforce customary law.
Earl-led rule: In many areas, Viking earls exercised military and administrative control, bridging Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon structures.
Law codes: While largely customary, interactions with Anglo-Saxon kingdoms eventually produced hybrid legal frameworks.
These institutions ensured continuity of authority and legitimacy within mixed communities of Anglo-Saxons and Vikings.
Policy and Integration
Viking settlement was not a one-sided imposition but a process of negotiation and integration. Important policies included:
Intermarriage between Anglo-Saxons and Vikings, facilitating cultural blending.
Adoption of Christianity by many settlers, aiding coexistence with local populations.
Agricultural integration, where Scandinavian farming methods adapted to the fertile English soil.
Urban consolidation, transforming existing Anglo-Saxon settlements into centres of Viking power.
Through these policies, Scandinavian settlers shaped the political and social fabric of England, leaving long-lasting legacies in both governance and culture.
Significance of Settlement Structures
The distinctive settlement structures introduced by the Vikings reveal their broader aims:
Consolidation of territorial control through permanent settlement rather than raiding.
Economic expansion, using towns like York as trading bases.
Social transformation, through the introduction of new landholding patterns and legal institutions.
By reshaping rural and urban England, Viking settlement policies under the Danelaw provided the foundations for the eventual integration of Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian cultures.
FAQ
In Scandinavia, settlements often centred on isolated farmsteads spread across challenging terrain. In England, however, Scandinavian settlers adapted to more fertile land and existing Anglo-Saxon structures.
This meant they continued to favour longhouses and dispersed holdings but sometimes clustered around existing villages or markets to access trade routes and fertile farmland.
York under Viking control became a major centre for coin production. This was not just economic but political, as issuing currency:
Demonstrated authority over trade and taxation.
Reinforced legitimacy of Viking rulers within the Danelaw.
Linked York directly to wider Scandinavian and European trading networks.
Coinage symbolised urban governance and control of economic policy.
Things were assemblies where free men met to decide disputes and uphold law.
In rural contexts, they dealt with farming disputes and land boundaries. In urban areas such as York, things became crucial for regulating markets, trade, and craft production, ensuring stability in mixed Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian populations.
Viking settlers adapted their farming to suit English soils. This involved:
Expanding arable farming due to fertile lowland regions.
Continuing stock-rearing traditions, especially cattle and pigs.
Experimenting with crop rotation, likely influenced by Anglo-Saxon neighbours.
This blending produced more productive and sustainable farming systems than in Scandinavia alone.
Excavations, particularly in York (Coppergate), provide strong evidence:
Timber houses aligned along streets in Scandinavian fashion.
Workshops for metalworking, woodturning, and textile production.
Imported goods such as Baltic amber and Scandinavian-style combs.
These finds show how Vikings transformed English towns into vibrant trading and craft-working centres.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two features of Scandinavian rural settlements established in England during the Viking Age.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each valid feature identified (maximum 2 marks).
Valid features include:
• Scattered farmsteads rather than nucleated villages.
• Use of longhouses combining living, storage, and byre space.
• Reliance on mixed farming, including crops and animal husbandry.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the establishment of the Danelaw influenced the administration and governance of English settlements.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Simple or general comments with limited factual support, e.g. "The Danelaw changed how laws were made."
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation with relevant examples, but lacking depth or balance.
Answers may include one clear way the Danelaw influenced governance, such as the introduction of Scandinavian legal traditions.
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Developed explanation with detailed support.
Points may include:
• Introduction of Scandinavian assemblies (things) for dispute resolution.
• Distinct land-tenure practices, such as sokemen, shaping local governance.
• Coexistence and blending of Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian customs, producing hybrid legal frameworks.Well-structured answer addressing more than one aspect of governance.
