OCR Specification focus:
‘Scandinavian rural and urban settlements; English rural and urban settlements (including York); kingship; the impact of settlements on livelihood (including farming, craft-working, trade); society (including social structure, families, kinship and customs).’
The settlements of the Viking Age reveal how Norse expansion reshaped societies across Britain and Scandinavia, with changes in economy, politics, and culture visible in urban and rural life.
Scandinavian Rural and Urban Settlements
Rural Settlements
Scandinavian rural settlements were generally small, consisting of farmsteads and clustered villages. Their placement was influenced by land quality, climate, and access to water routes, essential for both farming and communication.
Farming techniques included mixed arable cultivation and animal husbandry.
Timber-built longhouses served as combined living and working spaces.
Craft-working often took place within households, producing textiles, ironwork, and tools.
Seasonal activities such as fishing and hunting supplemented food supplies.
Timber-built longhouses served as combined living and working spaces for households, livestock and seasonal storage.
Exterior of a reconstructed Viking longhouse at Borg (Lofotr) showing the bow-sided walls and long timber roof typical of Scandinavian rural farms. This real-world visual complements the textual description of house form and functions. It adds landscape context beyond the syllabus but remains tightly relevant to settlement structure. Source
Urban Settlements
The Viking Age also saw the growth of urban centres. Towns developed at strategic coastal and riverine locations, serving as hubs for trade, governance, and craftsmanship. Excavations of places like Hedeby and Birka demonstrate advanced planning, with grid-like street systems and trading quarters.
Excavations at Hedeby and Birka reveal planned street systems, waterfronts and market plots serving long-distance trade.
Vector map of Birka on Björkö island indicating ramparts, harbour and major settlement areas. Labels are in French (extra detail not required by the syllabus), but the urban form and defensive circuit are clearly depicted. Use it to anchor discussion of Scandinavian town planning and commerce. Source
Markets attracted both locals and foreign merchants.
Craft specialists, such as metalworkers, jewellers, and shipwrights, concentrated in urban centres.
Urban settlements facilitated the use of coinage and weight systems, reflecting a monetised economy.
English Rural and Urban Settlements
Rural Settlements
The Viking presence in England transformed rural life, especially within the Danelaw. Scandinavian settlers often integrated into existing Anglo-Saxon villages, though they introduced new agricultural practices and distinctive place-name patterns (e.g., the suffix “-by” meaning village).
Many villages adopted open-field farming systems, ensuring cooperative land use.
Livelihoods were broadened by craft production for trade networks.
Scandinavian legal customs shaped how land was managed and disputes resolved.
Urban Settlements
Urban centres flourished under Viking influence. York (Jorvik) is the most important example of a Viking urban settlement in England.
Situated on the River Ouse, York became a vibrant trading hub linking England to Ireland, Scandinavia, and the wider continent.
Archaeological finds show extensive metalwork, amber carving, and leather production.
The settlement also acted as a centre of royal authority, with fortified walls and administrative structures.
Kingship and Settlements
The settlement process was closely linked with royal power (kingship). Kings both in Scandinavia and in England used settlements to project authority and extract wealth.
Urban centres allowed monarchs to control trade and taxation.
Rural areas provided the food rents, tribute, and manpower necessary for sustaining royal households and armies.
The growth of York into a capital of Viking Northumbria demonstrates how kingship could transform a city into a centre of governance and prestige.
Kingship: The institution of monarchical authority, where power was expressed through military leadership, economic control, and religious or cultural patronage.
The relationship between kingship and settlement was dynamic; rulers relied on thriving communities, while settlements gained protection and legitimacy from kings.
Livelihood and Settlements
Farming
Farming remained the backbone of livelihood. Settlement expansion meant:
Arable farming (barley, oats, rye, and wheat).
Pastoral farming (cattle, pigs, sheep, and horses).
Innovations such as the heavy plough improved productivity in some areas.
Craft-Working
Craft-working became increasingly professionalised in both rural and urban settlements.
Rural households produced essentials (tools, textiles).
Urban specialists focused on luxury goods and weaponry.
Shipbuilding, essential for Viking expansion, thrived in both coastal and inland towns.
Trade
Settlements expanded trade networks:
English towns like York connected Scandinavia with continental Europe.
Scandinavian towns like Hedeby facilitated long-distance exchange with the Carolingian Empire and Byzantium.
Commodities included furs, slaves, amber, silver, and agricultural produce.
Society: Structures, Families, and Kinship
Settlement growth altered the organisation of society. Both in Scandinavia and in England, social hierarchies became more visible.
Elites (jarls or ealdormen) controlled land, collected tribute, and enforced law.
Freemen (karls or ceorls) formed the majority, engaged in farming and military service.
Slaves (thralls) provided labour in farming, domestic service, and construction.
Kinship: The system of social relationships based on family ties, often extending into broader clan networks that determined inheritance, loyalty, and political allegiance.
Kinship remained central in both Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon societies, shaping marriage alliances, inheritance rights, and military loyalties.
Families and Customs
Households were often extended families, including parents, children, and dependents.
Customs of inheritance varied: Scandinavian law often favoured male heirs, though women retained property rights in certain contexts.
Marriage alliances were crucial in consolidating wealth and power within settlements.
The Cultural Dimension of Settlements
Settlements were not only economic and political centres but also cultural ones.
Scandinavian settlers introduced language and naming customs into English society, leaving a lasting linguistic legacy.
Urban life encouraged the growth of craft styles, religious practices, and artistic expression.
Settlement interaction fostered the blending of Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon traditions, creating hybrid cultures in towns like York.
Overall, Viking settlements shaped the society, economy, and culture of both Scandinavia and England, leaving a legacy visible in land use, urban planning, legal customs, and social organisation.
FAQ
Excavations of farmsteads reveal longhouse foundations, animal pens, and storage pits. Artefacts such as loom weights, spindle whorls, and iron tools show textile production and farming activity.
Animal bones provide evidence of diet, while pollen analysis shows the crops cultivated. These findings illustrate the mixed economy of rural households and their adaptation to local environments.
York was strategically located on the River Ouse, giving access to the North Sea and inland England. Its position made it ideal for trade and political control.
The Vikings developed it into a fortified urban hub, attracting artisans and merchants. It later became the capital of Viking Northumbria, cementing its role as both an economic and administrative centre.
Women managed households, oversaw textile production, and cared for livestock. They could own property and sometimes inherit land, particularly under Scandinavian legal traditions.
Grave goods such as keys, jewellery, and weaving tools suggest women held social and symbolic importance. In Anglo-Scandinavian communities, intermarriage created cultural exchange and shaped kinship alliances.
Kinship groups determined who lived together and how land was allocated. Extended families often occupied neighbouring plots, reinforcing social ties.
Disputes over property or inheritance were settled by local assemblies (things in Scandinavia, moots in England). These institutions maintained order and ensured settlements functioned cohesively.
Settlements like York became melting pots of Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon traditions.
Language: Old Norse words entered Old English, shaping place-names and everyday vocabulary.
Art and craft: Scandinavian decorative styles merged with Anglo-Saxon designs in metalwork and stone carving.
Religion: Pagan customs coexisted with Christianity, with some hybrid burial practices evident in archaeology.
This blending fostered a distinct Anglo-Scandinavian identity visible in both material culture and social life.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two features of Scandinavian rural settlements in the Viking Age.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each valid feature identified.
Possible answers include:Presence of timber-built longhouses.
Reliance on mixed farming (arable crops and animal husbandry).
Settlements were small farmsteads or clustered villages.
Location influenced by access to water routes.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Viking settlements influenced society and culture in England during the Viking Age.
Mark scheme:
Award 1–2 marks for general or descriptive points with limited explanation.
Award 3–4 marks for answers that show some explanation with supporting examples.
Award 5–6 marks for well-developed explanations with specific and accurate examples of social and cultural influence.
Indicative content (any relevant points may be credited):
The establishment of Viking settlements introduced Scandinavian place-names (e.g., suffix “-by”) and language into English society.
Urban centres such as York (Jorvik) became hubs of cultural blending, fostering hybrid traditions in crafts and religious practice.
Kinship customs and marriage alliances shaped Anglo-Scandinavian society.
Scandinavian influence altered social structures, including the coexistence of Anglo-Saxon elites with Viking jarls and the presence of freemen and thralls.
Settlements facilitated the transfer of craft-working traditions and artistic styles, leaving a cultural legacy.
