German territorial expansion from 1938 to 1939 and the formation of pre-war alliances significantly reshaped the European landscape, setting the stage for World War II. This era saw the ascension of Nazi Germany's bold foreign policies and an international community grappling with responses to such aggression.
German Territorial Expansion (1938-1939)
Under Adolf Hitler, Nazi Germany pursued an ambitious expansionist strategy, both to regain territories lost after WWI and to achieve German hegemony in Europe.
Anschluss with Austria (1938)
- Background: Hitler always envisaged the incorporation of Austria into a greater German Reich, given the shared linguistic, cultural, and historical ties.
- March 1938: German troops entered Austria in a show of force, leading to the Anschluss.
- The move was propagated as the natural union of German-speaking people but was essentially a forced annexation.
- The subsequent plebiscite, supposedly confirming popular support, had many irregularities and allegations of intimidation.
The Sudetenland Crisis and Munich Agreement (1938)
- Background: Sudetenland, in Czechoslovakia, was home to a considerable ethnic German population, many of whom felt disconnected from the central government and were sympathetic to Nazi propaganda.
- Hitler, capitalising on these sentiments, demanded the annexation of the Sudetenland by October.
- Munich Agreement: Hoping to avoid a major conflict, Britain and France consented to Germany's demands during a meeting in Munich. This, now infamous, act of appeasement excluded Czechoslovakian representation and is often cited as a prelude to further German ambitions.
- Critics argue that this emboldened Hitler, making him believe that he could reshape Europe without facing armed resistance.
Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1939)
- Hitler wasn't content with just the Sudetenland. Contravening the Munich Agreement, Germany swiftly occupied the Czech regions by March 1939, effectively erasing Czechoslovakia from the map.
- This act startled European powers, underscoring the reality that Hitler's ambitions were not limited to German-speaking regions alone.
Memel Region from Lithuania (1939)
- The Memel region had historically been under German influence. In March 1939, using political pressure and the threat of military force, Germany incorporated Memel back from Lithuania.
Key Alliances
Strategic alliances were pivotal for Germany, providing political and military security as they pursued their expansionist goals.
The Pact of Steel (1939)
- Background: Italy and Germany shared certain ideological similarities, both being fascist states with expansionist goals. While their relationship had been somewhat ambivalent in the early 1930s, by the end of the decade, mutual interests brought them closer.
- May 1939: The Pact of Steel, signed by both nations, was more than a non-aggression pact. It was a pledge of mutual support in times of war, signalling to the world the burgeoning Rome-Berlin axis.
- The alliance was a stark message, especially to France and Britain, of the solidifying front they might have to contend with.
The Nazi–Soviet Pact (Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) (1939)
- Background: A German-Soviet pact seemed unlikely given the ideological chasm between Nazism and Communism. However, pragmatic concerns over Poland brought the two powers together.
- August 1939: The world was stunned when the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was announced. The public face of the agreement was non-aggression, but secret clauses essentially planned the division of Eastern Europe between the two powers.
- This treaty provided Germany with the confidence to invade Poland, knowing the Soviets wouldn't intervene.
Events Leading to the Outbreak of WWII
Invasion of Poland (1939)
- Poland, caught between two formidable neighbours, found itself the primary target of both German expansionism and Soviet concerns.
- September 1, 1939: Germany invaded Poland without a formal war declaration, quickly employing their Blitzkrieg tactics.
- September 3, 1939: Recognising the gravity of the situation and the failure of appeasement, Britain and France declared war on Germany. Yet, their immediate military response was limited.
Soviet Invasion of Poland (1939)
- September 17, 1939: Honouring the secret clauses of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east.
- By the beginning of October, Poland was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union, and the stage was set for a broader conflict encompassing all of Europe.
Note: This period in history highlights the dangers of unchecked ambitions, the pitfalls of appeasement, and the intricacies of diplomatic manoeuvring in the face of rising tensions. The German expansion and alliances formed in this period were directly responsible for the onset of the most devastating conflict in human history.
FAQ
The signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, or Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, in August 1939 might appear counterintuitive given the ideological chasm between Nazism and Communism. However, the motivations were primarily pragmatic. The Soviet Union was wary of a potential two-front war – with Japan in the east and Germany in the west. This pact ensured non-aggression from Germany, allowing the Soviets to focus on potential threats from Japan. Additionally, the secret clauses permitted the Soviet Union to regain territories in Eastern Europe lost during WWI and the Russian Civil War, such as parts of Poland, Estonia, Latvia, and Finland. Stalin also believed that a war between Germany and the Western powers could weaken all parties involved, potentially allowing the USSR to emerge stronger.
The Pact of Steel between Germany and Italy in May 1939 was driven by both ideological and strategic reasons. Ideologically, both nations were fascist states with expansionist goals, and a formal alliance solidified this shared worldview. Strategically, the pact aimed to counterbalance the perceived threat from Britain and France. For Germany, an alliance with Italy provided a southern buffer, potentially diverting French attention. For Italy, aligning with the increasingly powerful Germany provided a semblance of security and support for its Mediterranean ambitions. Ultimately, the pact was a message to the world about the strengthening Rome-Berlin axis and their combined resolve to reshape Europe.
When Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Britain and France did declare war two days later. However, their immediate military response was minimal, a period often referred to as the "Phoney War" or "Sitzkrieg" (sitting war). Several factors contributed to this. Firstly, both Britain and France were unprepared for a full-scale war, both in terms of military readiness and public sentiment. The trauma of WWI still loomed large, and there was hope that diplomatic solutions might still emerge. Secondly, there was an underestimation of German military capability, with many believing that the German economy couldn't sustain a prolonged conflict. Lastly, there was a belief, especially in France, that the fortified Maginot Line along the German border would be an effective deterrent, hence the initial strategy was more defensive than offensive.
Yes, the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 was a direct violation of the Munich Agreement. The agreement, brokered in 1938, allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland under the pretence of uniting German-speaking populations. However, it was assumed that this would be the extent of Germany's territorial ambitions in the region. When German troops occupied the remaining parts of Czechoslovakia, it was clear that Hitler's goals went beyond the reunification of German-speaking people. This act not only erased Czechoslovakia from the map but also starkly exposed the fallacy of appeasement, indicating that concessions only emboldened Hitler's expansionist ambitions.
The Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia, held strategic and ideological importance for Germany. Firstly, the area was home to a significant ethnic German population, many of whom purportedly felt marginalised under Czech governance. Incorporating these German-speaking individuals into the Reich was seen as a rectification of post-WWI boundaries. Secondly, the Sudetenland was a highly fortified region, and its annexation would militarily weaken Czechoslovakia while strengthening Germany’s defences. Lastly, taking control of this region meant gaining access to its substantial industrial base and resources, further fuelling Germany's war machine. Hitler's demand for the Sudetenland was also a test of European response, gauging how far he could push without facing a military challenge.
Practice Questions
The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, signed in August 1939 between Germany and the Soviet Union, was pivotal in reshaping European geopolitics. At its core, this non-aggression treaty allowed both powers to operate in Eastern Europe without interference from the other. For Germany, it provided a sense of security when invading Poland, knowing that the Soviet Union would not retaliate but instead collaborate in partitioning Poland. The pact was symbolic of the lengths nations would go to, even aligning with ideological adversaries, to secure territorial and political interests. It fundamentally enabled Germany's aggressive territorial expansion, and without it, the sequence of events leading to WWII might have been markedly different.
The Munich Agreement of 1938 epitomised the appeasement policy adopted by major European powers, primarily Britain and France, towards Germany's expansionist aspirations. Eager to avert another large-scale conflict, these powers conceded to Hitler's demands for the Sudetenland without Czechoslovakia's consultation. Rather than curbing German ambition, this concession bolstered Hitler's confidence in his expansionist agenda, underlining the flawed nature of appeasement. The agreement illustrated the desperation of European powers to maintain peace at almost any cost, even if it meant sacrificing smaller nations' sovereignty. In hindsight, it highlighted the naivety and miscalculation of the Allies in understanding and countering Nazi ambitions.
Maddie, an Oxford history graduate, is experienced in creating dynamic educational resources, blending her historical knowledge with her tutoring experience to inspire and educate students.