The late eighteenth century was a pivotal turning point for Italy, marked by revolutionary upheavals, foreign dominance, and the early stirrings of nationalist thought.

Italy in 1789

Italy in 1789 was a patchwork of independent states, lacking political unity and dominated by foreign powers. The peninsula was divided into a variety of monarchies, duchies, and republics.

A labelled political map of Italy in 1796, showing the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, Austrian Lombardy, Venice, the Papal States, Naples/Sicily, and the smaller duchies. It highlights foreign dominance and inter-state borders that constrained cooperation. Dated 1796; while slightly later than 1789, the divisions are representative of the pre-Napoleonic order. Source

Political and Territorial Division

• Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont: Ruled by the House of Savoy, influential in northern Italy.

• Lombardy: Controlled by Austria, highlighting Habsburg dominance.

• Venetian Republic: Once powerful, but in decline by the late eighteenth century.

• Papal States: Governed directly by the Pope, encompassing central Italy.

• Kingdom of Naples (and Sicily): Under the Bourbon dynasty, stretching across southern Italy.

• Smaller duchies: Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, often under indirect Habsburg influence.

This fragmentation ensured weak cooperation between Italian states and made the peninsula vulnerable to external intervention.

Social and Economic Conditions

• The economy was backward and uneven, with some commercial development in northern cities like Milan and Turin, but rural poverty dominating the south.

• Feudal structures persisted in many regions, with peasants tied to land and facing heavy taxation.

• A growing intellectual elite in cities, influenced by Enlightenment ideas, questioned traditional hierarchies.

The Impact of the French Revolution

The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 reverberated across Italy, influencing politics, society, and intellectual life.

Spread of Revolutionary Ideals

• Liberty, Equality, Fraternity inspired Italian radicals and intellectuals who sought reform and freedom from foreign domination.

• Secret societies and reformist groups emerged, beginning to discuss concepts of national unity and self-determination.

• The revolution challenged the legitimacy of monarchies and traditional elites, weakening established rulers.

Political Consequences

• Rulers of Italian states were alarmed by revolutionary propaganda, fearing revolt among their subjects.

• Intellectuals, lawyers, and students began to absorb Enlightenment-inspired republicanism, leading to growing demands for constitutional government.

• Initially, most Italians remained passive, but the elite’s engagement laid groundwork for later nationalist movements.

Napoleonic Italy

The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte after 1796 brought Italy under direct French influence, transforming its political and social structures.

French Conquest of Italy

• Napoleon’s Italian campaign (1796–1797) swiftly defeated Austrian forces and their allies, establishing French dominance.

• The Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) granted Austria control of Venice but confirmed French supremacy in much of northern Italy.

• Traditional rulers were deposed, and revolutionary governments established.

Creation of Sister Republics

Napoleon reorganised Italian territories into client republics modelled on the French system:

• Cisalpine Republic (1797), centred on Lombardy.

• Roman Republic (1798), carved from Papal territories.

• Partenopean Republic (1799), established in Naples but short-lived.

These republics introduced written constitutions, civil codes, and administrative reforms, replacing feudal privileges.

Social and Administrative Reforms

• Introduction of the Napoleonic Code abolished feudal dues, introduced equality before law, and promoted meritocracy.

• Secularisation weakened the power of the Catholic Church, especially in the Papal States.

• Improved bureaucracy and legal systems created greater efficiency and modernisation, especially in the north.

Limitations of Reform

• Despite reforms, French rule was exploitative: Italy was used as a resource base for Napoleon’s wars.

• Heavy taxation, conscription, and requisitioning of goods caused resentment among ordinary Italians.

• Support for republicanism was often limited to urban elites, while peasants remained sceptical or hostile.

The Kingdom of Italy

In 1805, Napoleon created the Kingdom of Italy, with himself as king and his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais as viceroy.

Map of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy (c. 1805–1814), indicating the territories unified under French control. It visually contrasts with the pre-1796 patchwork, clarifying the extent of Napoleonic centralisation in northern and central Italy. Labels are concise and legible, avoiding clutter. Source

• This entity united parts of northern and central Italy under one administration.

• It represented the most significant move toward Italian political centralisation before the mid-nineteenth century.

• However, it remained subordinate to France, with no real autonomy.

Nationalist Awakening

• Napoleon’s reforms inspired some Italians to think of themselves as part of a wider Italian nation.

• Figures such as Ugo Foscolo, an Italian poet and patriot, articulated the dream of unity and independence.

• The idea of Italy as a coherent nation, though still embryonic, began to spread beyond intellectual circles.

Legacy of the Period

The period from 1789 to Napoleon’s fall left a dual legacy for Italy:

• On the one hand, exposure to French revolutionary principles, legal reforms, and partial unification planted seeds of modern nationalism.

• On the other, widespread discontent with foreign exploitation reinforced resentment toward imposed rulers.

• These conflicting experiences meant that post-1815 Italy remained divided, but nationalist aspirations had been irreversibly awakened.

This foundational period set the stage for the later Risorgimento, when ideas of independence and unification would return with renewed force.