OCR Specification focus:
‘the Carbonari; the revolutions of 1820–1821 and 1831’
The Carbonari and the revolutions of 1820–1821 and 1831 mark the first significant stirrings of Italian nationalism and liberalism, challenging the conservative post-Napoleonic order.
Italy in the Aftermath of the Vienna Settlement
Following the Congress of Vienna (1815), Italy was divided into a patchwork of restored monarchies and foreign-controlled states. Austrian dominance was clear in Lombardy and Venetia, while the Papal States and the restored Bourbon monarchy in Naples reinforced a conservative, repressive climate. Secret societies such as the Carbonari developed as an opposition force to this settlement, drawing in those frustrated by foreign domination and the suppression of liberal ideas.
The Carbonari: Origins and Ideology
The Carbonari (literally "charcoal burners") were a secret society operating mainly in southern Italy and Naples in the early nineteenth century.
Carbonari: A network of secret societies that aimed to oppose conservative monarchies, resist Austrian dominance, and promote constitutionalism in Italy during the early 1800s.
Their membership was diverse, including discontented soldiers, intellectuals, and middle-class professionals. Although their ideology was loosely defined, common principles included:
Constitutional government as a safeguard against absolute monarchy.
National independence, particularly resistance to Austrian influence.
Liberal reforms such as the rule of law, press freedom, and equality before the law.
However, the Carbonari lacked a coherent, unified programme for Italian unification; their focus was often local, conspiratorial, and fragmented.
The Carbonari were a clandestine network of vendite (lodges) using charcoal-burners’ symbols, secret oaths and initiation rituals to recruit across the professions.
Flag commonly associated with the Carbonari—its bold colours and star symbol highlight secrecy and identity. Designs varied, but this representation aids recognition. Source
The Revolutions of 1820–1821
Background and Triggers
The immediate spark for unrest in 1820 came from Spain, where a successful liberal revolution forced King Ferdinand VII to accept a constitution. This inspired Neapolitan liberals and Carbonari leaders to demand similar reforms.
Naples, July 1820
A Carbonari-led military mutiny in Naples demanded the Spanish-style constitution of 1812.
King Ferdinand I appeared to grant this constitution, pressured by the scale of unrest.
A new parliament was briefly established, and the liberal constitution adopted.
“In July 1820 a carbonaro-led mutiny at Nola forced Ferdinand I to accept the Spanish 1812 Constitution, triggering unrest across the Two Sicilies.”
Sicily and Wider Spread
Sicily attempted to break away from Naples and restore its own constitution.
Discontent spread to Piedmont, where disillusionment with Austrian dominance encouraged similar liberal demands.
Austrian Intervention
The Congress System allowed Austria to intervene to restore order.
In March 1821, Austrian troops crushed the Neapolitan revolution.
In Piedmont, King Victor Emmanuel I abdicated, but his successor Charles Felix called for Austrian support to defeat revolutionaries.
By April 1821, Austrian forces had reimposed conservative rule in both Naples and Piedmont.
The Revolutions of 1831
Political Context
The July Revolution in France (1830) replaced Charles X with the more liberal Louis-Philippe, inspiring Italian liberals once again. Economic hardship and resentment of Austrian control created fertile ground for renewed unrest.
Centres of Revolution
Modena: Local revolutionaries, encouraged by the Carbonari, conspired against Duke Francis IV.
Parma and the Papal Legations: Protests demanded constitutional government and liberal reforms.
Provisional governments were briefly established, proclaiming constitutionalism and independence.
“In 1831, uprisings centred on Modena, Parma and the Papal Legations (Romagna) briefly established provisional governments before Austrian forces intervened.”
Austrian Suppression
Once again, Austrian troops intervened decisively:
By March 1831, uprisings in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States were crushed.
Leaders were arrested, exiled, or executed, reinforcing the futility of isolated revolts without external support.
The Role of the Carbonari in Revolutionary Failures
The Carbonari were central in both 1820 and 1831, but their weaknesses contributed to repeated failure:
Lack of unity: No shared vision of Italian unification; many members prioritised regional or constitutional aims.
Secretive organisation: While secrecy protected them from immediate repression, it limited the ability to mobilise mass popular support.
Dependence on foreign events: Both revolutions were sparked by external liberal successes (Spain 1820, France 1830), showing limited internal initiative.
Reliance on the army: In Naples and Piedmont, success depended on military mutiny; once troops withdrew support, revolutions quickly collapsed.
Consequences of the Revolutions
Despite their failures, the revolutions of 1820–1821 and 1831 had lasting significance:
Exposure of Austrian dominance: The rapid suppression of revolts by Austrian troops highlighted the central barrier to Italian independence.
Repression and exile: Many liberal leaders fled into exile, where they developed new, more radical ideas about nationalism.
Legacy for later movements: The weaknesses of the Carbonari demonstrated the need for broader, more organised nationalist movements, paving the way for Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy in the 1830s.
Growth of political consciousness: Although limited in scope, these revolts introduced constitutional and nationalist ideas into Italian political culture.
Key Features of the Carbonari and Early Revolutions
Secret societies rooted in opposition to the Vienna Settlement.
Revolts inspired by international liberal successes rather than indigenous strength.
Austrian intervention as the decisive factor in their failure.
Failure to mobilise mass support and inability to coordinate across Italian states.
Long-term importance in laying the groundwork for later nationalist leaders and ideologies.
FAQ
The Carbonari used the symbolism of charcoal-burners to disguise their political activity under a humble, rural craft. This allowed members to meet secretly without arousing suspicion.
Rituals such as initiations, coded symbols, and passwords strengthened solidarity and loyalty among members. The imagery also emphasised sacrifice, endurance, and the “purifying fire” of revolution.
Ferdinand I initially accepted the Spanish-style constitution under pressure, but secretly sought Austrian support to restore his absolute rule.
When Austrian troops suppressed the revolution, he revoked the constitution and punished liberals harshly. His duplicity revealed both the weakness of Italian revolutionaries and the reliability of Austria as an ally to conservative rulers.
The Carbonari relied heavily on sympathetic officers and soldiers to trigger uprisings.
In Naples (1820), mutinous regiments forced Ferdinand I to concede reforms.
In Piedmont (1821), junior officers pushed for constitutional monarchy.
However, without sustained military loyalty, revolutions collapsed once governments regained control or Austria intervened.
Modena became a revolutionary centre because Duke Francis IV secretly encouraged Carbonari conspirators, hoping to expand his power if Austria weakened.
When events unfolded, he betrayed the conspirators and arrested leaders, but revolution still erupted. Austrian forces quickly restored him, highlighting both his opportunism and the fragility of revolutionary planning in smaller duchies.
Local rebels in the Legations (Romagna region) called for constitutional reform and self-government, challenging papal authority.
Papal officials were alarmed but relied on Austria to suppress rebellion, lacking sufficient forces of their own. After Austrian intervention, the Papacy reasserted strict control, reinforcing its conservative stance and its dependence on foreign protection.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Who were the Carbonari and what was their main aim in early nineteenth-century Italy?
Mark Scheme
1 mark for identifying the Carbonari as a secret society in Italy.
1 mark for stating their main aim, e.g. to oppose conservative monarchies, promote constitutional government, or resist Austrian dominance.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why the revolutions of 1820–1821 and 1831 in Italy failed.
Mark Scheme
Up to 3 marks for each valid explanation, maximum 6 marks.
Points may include:
Austrian military intervention (up to 3 marks for clear explanation).
Lack of unity among revolutionaries, including regionalism and conflicting aims (up to 3 marks).
Limited popular support beyond elites and the army (up to 3 marks).
Dependence on external events, e.g. revolutions in Spain (1820) and France (1830) (up to 3 marks).
To gain full marks, answers must show clear explanation, not just identification. For example, stating “Austria intervened” gains 1 mark, but explaining that “Austria’s decisive intervention under the Congress System crushed revolutions in Naples, Piedmont and the Papal States, demonstrating Italian weakness” gains up to 3 marks.
