OCR Specification focus:
‘the influence of intellectuals and nationalist movements, including Young Italy and different attitudes to unification; extent of support for nationalism’
The development of Italian nationalism before 1848 was deeply shaped by intellectual currents and political societies. Writers, philosophers, and secret organisations provided the ideological framework for unification while simultaneously exposing the limits of popular support.
The Role of Intellectuals in Early Nationalism
Enlightenment and Revolutionary Influences
The French Revolution and Napoleonic rule had already awakened Italian thinkers to the possibility of reform and political unity. Intellectuals began to link ideas of liberty, equality, and self-determination with the concept of a unified Italy.
Many were inspired by Enlightenment principles of rational government and constitutional liberty.
Napoleonic Italy had shown that administrative efficiency and legal reform could operate across traditional Italian states.
Prominent Intellectual Figures
Vincenzo Cuoco argued that Italian revolutions failed because they were imposed from above rather than rooted in the people.
Giacomo Leopardi, a poet and philosopher, expressed disillusionment with Italy’s fragmented state but contributed to the cultural sense of Italian identity.
Carlo Cattaneo, later significant in federalist debates, stressed the importance of regional autonomy within a broader Italian cultural unity.
Intellectual: In the context of nineteenth-century Italy, an individual whose writings, speeches, or leadership shaped nationalist ideology and political consciousness.
These figures emphasised either republicanism, federalism, or constitutional monarchy, showing the ideological diversity within the nationalist cause.
The Rise of Nationalist Movements
Secret Societies
The Carbonari had been the leading underground revolutionary society in the early nineteenth century. However, by the 1830s their influence was waning, replaced by new forms of political mobilisation.
Their focus on secrecy and conspiracies limited their ability to mobilise mass support.
Nevertheless, they influenced later nationalist organisations by providing models of commitment and organisation.
Young Italy
The most important nationalist movement of the 1830s and 1840s was Young Italy, founded by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1831.
Engraved portrait of Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872), the leading theorist of Italian republican nationalism and founder of Young Italy. His writings and activism linked moral duty with national unity. This primary image anchors the role of intellectuals in shaping early nationalist agendas. Source
Its goal was the creation of a united, republican Italy, free from foreign domination.
The society relied on propaganda, publications, and revolutionary attempts rather than clandestine rituals.
Mazzini believed that nationalism was a moral duty, combining politics with spiritual renewal.
Young Italy: A nationalist movement founded by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1831, advocating for a unified, republican Italy through education, propaganda, and insurrection.
Unlike earlier secret societies, Young Italy emphasised open appeal to the masses, particularly the youth, whom Mazzini considered the “soul” of the nation.
Giovine Italia banner (c. 1831–1833) with a horizontal tricolour and the motto “UNIONE, FORZA E LIBERTÀ.” It illustrates how Mazzini’s movement used clear symbolism to recruit and mobilise. Source
Other Movements
Neo-Guelph Movement: Advocated unification under the Pope, combining Catholicism with nationalism.
Moderate Liberals: Favoured unification through constitutional monarchy, often looking to Piedmont as a leader.
Federalists: Proposed a looser federation of Italian states rather than centralised unity.
Attitudes to Unification
Republicanism
Mazzini’s vision of a democratic republic reflected the radical end of nationalism. He argued that only a republic could guarantee freedom and equality.
Monarchical Constitutionalism
Moderate nationalists such as Cesare Balbo and Vincenzo Gioberti proposed a constitutional monarchy. Some looked to Piedmont and the House of Savoy as potential unifiers, while others promoted papal leadership through the Neo-Guelph vision.
Federalism
Figures such as Cattaneo suggested that Italian diversity was better protected by a federal system, ensuring regional autonomy while promoting unity against foreign domination.
These competing ideologies revealed that “Italian nationalism” was never a single unified doctrine, but rather a spectrum of political possibilities.
Extent of Support for Nationalism
Geographic and Social Reach
Regional Variation: Nationalist support was strongest in urban centres like Genoa, Milan, and Turin, where intellectual and middle-class networks were concentrated.
Class Dimension: The peasantry, making up the majority of Italy’s population, remained largely detached from nationalist goals, preoccupied instead with local and economic concerns.
Clergy and Elites: Some elements of the educated elite and clergy supported moderate or Neo-Guelph nationalism, while others resisted any threat to traditional power.
Obstacles to Broad Support
Illiteracy and poverty limited popular access to nationalist propaganda.
Foreign domination, particularly Austrian control of Lombardy-Venetia, suppressed nationalist organisations and made mobilisation dangerous.
Map of the Italian peninsula in 1843, showing separate states including Lombardy–Venetia under Austrian rule, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This clarifies why support concentrated in certain urban centres and why strategy differed among nationalists. Source
Political repression by conservative rulers in Naples, Modena, and Tuscany ensured that nationalist ideas often remained confined to exiles or intellectual circles.
Nationalism: A political ideology that promotes the interests and unity of a nation, in this case the belief in creating a unified Italian state.
Growth Despite Limitations
Although support was limited in the 1830s and 1840s, nationalism grew steadily:
The increasing circulation of newspapers, pamphlets, and literature spread nationalist ideals.
Failures of small-scale revolts created martyrs and symbols that inspired later movements.
By 1847, the groundwork for broader uprisings had been laid, particularly as Pope Pius IX briefly appeared sympathetic to reform.
The Impact of Intellectuals and Movements
The influence of intellectuals and nationalist movements before 1848 was profound in shaping Italian identity:
They defined competing visions of unification — republican, monarchical, or federal.
They popularised the idea that Italy was more than a geographic expression, but a cultural and political nation.
They created the networks and propaganda that would fuel the revolutions of 1848–1849, even if success remained elusive at this stage.
FAQ
Mazzini believed nationalism was not just political but a divine duty. He argued that God had assigned every nation a mission, and Italy’s was unity and freedom.
This spiritual framing distinguished him from purely secular revolutionaries, helping to present nationalism as both a patriotic and moral obligation.
Mazzini viewed the younger generation as uncorrupted, energetic, and idealistic. He believed they could carry forward a new vision of Italy without the compromises of older elites.
The emphasis on youth also aimed to ensure longevity of the movement, planting nationalist values early and encouraging lifelong commitment to the cause.
The circulation of pamphlets, journals, and newspapers allowed ideas to spread beyond secret circles. For instance, Mazzini’s writings were smuggled across borders and read aloud in cafes.
Although literacy was limited, these publications reached educated urban groups who then shared ideas orally with wider communities, extending the influence of nationalism.
Neo-Guelphs wanted a federation of Italian states under papal leadership, combining Catholicism with nationalism.
Young Italy demanded a centralised, secular republic, rejecting papal involvement.
This distinction highlights the ideological breadth of Italian nationalism and the competing religious versus secular visions for unification.
Peasants, who made up most of the population, prioritised local issues such as harvests, rents, and taxation. Nationalist slogans often held little relevance to their daily struggles.
Additionally, poor communication networks and high illiteracy meant nationalist propaganda seldom reached rural communities, leaving peasants detached from wider political movements.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name one intellectual and one nationalist movement that influenced Italian nationalism before 1848.
Mark scheme
1 mark for correctly naming an intellectual, e.g. Mazzini, Cuoco, Leopardi, Cattaneo, Gioberti, Balbo.
1 mark for correctly naming a nationalist movement, e.g. Young Italy, Carbonari, Neo-Guelphs.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two different attitudes to Italian unification before 1848.
Mark scheme
Award up to 3 marks for each attitude explained:
Republicanism (up to 3 marks): Mazzini and Young Italy promoted a united, democratic republic; linked nationalism to moral and spiritual duty; aimed to mobilise the masses, especially youth.
Monarchical constitutionalism (up to 3 marks): Figures like Gioberti or Balbo favoured unification through a constitutional monarchy, often under Piedmont or the Pope; stressed gradual reform rather than radical revolution.
Federalism (up to 3 marks): Advocated by Cattaneo; proposed a federation of states to respect Italy’s diversity while ensuring resistance to foreign control.
Maximum 6 marks: candidates must explain two distinct attitudes clearly to access full marks.
1–2 marks: simple or vague description with limited detail.
3–4 marks: explanation of one attitude with some detail, or two with limited detail.
5–6 marks: clear and developed explanations of two different attitudes.
