OCR Specification focus:
‘Japanese society and state in the late Tokugawa period; peasant unrest and social tensions, disease and inflation’
Introduction
Late Tokugawa Japan faced profound challenges, including social discontent, rural unrest, disease, and inflation. These pressures weakened the Shogunate and destabilised traditional society, paving the way for transformation.
Japanese Society in the Late Tokugawa Period
The Structure of Tokugawa Society
The Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868) maintained a rigid social hierarchy known as the shi-no-ko-sho order:
Samurai (Shi) – warriors and administrators who served the daimyo and Shogun.
Peasants (No) – farmers who produced rice, the economic backbone of Japan.
Artisans (Ko) – craftspeople producing goods for urban markets.
Merchants (Sho) – traders, ranked lowest due to Confucian disdain for profit.
Shi-no-ko-sho: The Tokugawa class system dividing society into samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants, with strict boundaries between groups.
Although the samurai retained legal superiority, their economic power declined as many became dependent on stipends, while merchants gained influence through finance and trade.
A clean, labelled diagram of Edo Japan’s four estates, highlighting samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants in hierarchical order. It illustrates the rigid social divisions of Tokugawa society. Source
The Role of the Tokugawa State
The Shogunate relied upon alternate attendance (sankin-kōtai), compelling daimyo to spend alternating years in Edo, which both controlled regional lords and stimulated urban economies. However, by the 19th century, state finances were overstretched, and policies such as currency debasement increased economic instability.
A scroll image of a daimyō procession (sankin-kōtai), showing retainers and palanquin. It illustrates the alternate attendance system that reinforced shogunal authority but imposed heavy burdens on domains. Source
Social Tensions and the Rise of Peasant Unrest
Economic Strain on the Peasantry
The Tokugawa economy centred on rice taxation, but peasants faced heavy burdens:
High taxation in rice, often set regardless of crop yield.
Increasing commercialisation, forcing peasants into cash economies.
Rising indebtedness to village moneylenders and merchants.
Many peasants fell into tenancy, losing autonomy over their land.
Peasant Riots and Rebellions
Peasant discontent erupted in frequent uprisings:
Hyakushō ikki (peasant uprisings): collective protests demanding tax relief or debt cancellation.
Uchi kowashi (house smashing): direct attacks on merchants’ homes, symbolising resentment at wealth inequality.
Significant protests in the 1830s and 1860s highlighted the growing inability of the Shogunate to maintain rural order.
Hyakushō ikki: Organised peasant uprisings in Tokugawa Japan, usually demanding tax relief, fairer treatment, or the cancellation of debts.
Peasant unrest reflected broader dissatisfaction with the Tokugawa system, undermining its legitimacy.
Disease and Social Hardship
The Impact of Epidemics
Japan suffered recurrent outbreaks of cholera, smallpox, and other diseases in the 19th century. Urban centres, with crowded populations and poor sanitation, were especially vulnerable. Epidemics:
Weakened the workforce, intensifying agricultural hardship.
Fuelled religious and millenarian movements promising relief from suffering.
Deepened disillusionment with state authority, which seemed powerless to protect the people.
Famines and Malnutrition
Alongside disease, natural disasters and crop failures struck. Notably:
The Tenpō famine (1833–1837) devastated regions, killing thousands and sparking uprisings.
Food shortages heightened class resentment, as merchants often hoarded grain to raise prices.
Inflation and Economic Disruption
Currency Problems
By the 1850s, the Tokugawa economy was destabilised by inflation:
The government debased coinage to pay debts, lowering silver and gold content.
Prices rose sharply, particularly in urban areas.
Samurai, dependent on fixed stipends, saw their real incomes fall dramatically.
Inflation: A sustained rise in the general price level, reducing the purchasing power of money. In Tokugawa Japan, this undermined samurai and peasant livelihoods.
Photograph of Tokugawa-period gold and silver coinage, including koban and rectangular denominations. These coins were frequently debased, contributing to inflation and the hardship of peasants and samurai. Source
Winners and Losers of Economic Change
Merchants benefited from rising prices and trade expansion, especially in Osaka and Edo.
Samurai and peasants suffered reduced purchasing power, increasing discontent.
The widening gap between rich and poor fractured social stability.
Breakdown of Traditional Order
Declining Samurai Authority
The samurai class experienced loss of prestige as they:
Struggled financially due to inflation and fixed stipends.
Borrowed heavily from merchants, eroding independence.
Became increasingly symbolic rather than militarily essential.
Erosion of Social Hierarchies
The once rigid Tokugawa class system was undermined by:
Peasant uprisings challenging daimyo authority.
Merchant wealth overshadowing samurai honour.
Social mobility, as wealthy peasants and merchants purchased status or influence.
These shifts revealed a society in flux, with the Tokugawa regime unable to maintain traditional control.
Conclusion of Late Tokugawa Social Challenges
Japanese society in the late Tokugawa period was marked by peasant unrest, social tensions, disease, and inflation. These forces not only strained communities but also eroded confidence in the Tokugawa Shogunate, setting the stage for political upheaval and eventual transformation under the Meiji Restoration.
FAQ
Religious movements often gave peasants hope during hardship. Buddhist temples provided charity, while Shinto rituals were used to seek better harvests.
Millenarian cults promising salvation or protection from disease gained followers, particularly during epidemics and famines. Such movements occasionally blended with political dissent, giving unrest a spiritual dimension.
Village headmen were intermediaries between peasants and daimyo officials. When conditions worsened, they often attempted negotiation before violence.
In some cases, headmen secretly supported uprisings, drafting petitions or coordinating action. This blurred the line between official authority and grassroots protest, showing the fragility of Tokugawa control.
Merchants symbolised inequality, as they grew wealthy despite their low status. Peasants resented their dominance in credit and grain markets.
Rioters often practised uchi kowashi (house smashing), attacking storehouses.
These attacks were both economic protests and symbolic strikes against perceived injustice.
The Shogunate promoted measures such as isolation of the sick and purification rituals, though medical knowledge was limited.
Officials also encouraged the use of imported Dutch medical texts, introducing new practices like vaccination. However, traditional remedies and religious rituals often remained more influential in rural areas.
Urban samurai, reliant on fixed stipends, saw their purchasing power collapse, leading to indebtedness and humiliation.
Merchants, however, often benefited from inflation, gaining profits through speculation and price manipulation.
In rural areas, peasants bore the brunt through higher food costs and worsening debts, which deepened resentment and fuelled unrest.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two groups within the Tokugawa social hierarchy that experienced increasing economic hardship in the late Tokugawa period.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct group named.
Acceptable answers: samurai, peasants.
Do not award marks for artisans or merchants, as these groups generally prospered.
Maximum 2 marks.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why peasant unrest increased in the late Tokugawa period.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained, to a maximum of 6 marks.
Award 1 mark for identification of a valid reason, 1 mark for brief explanation, and an additional 1 mark for further development with detail.
Examples:
High taxation and debt (1 mark). Peasants were required to pay rice taxes regardless of harvest success (1 mark). Many fell into debt and tenancy, leading to widespread protests (1 mark).
Famines and disease (1 mark). Epidemics such as cholera and crop failures weakened rural communities (1 mark). This hardship fuelled uprisings and resentment towards the Shogunate’s inability to respond effectively (1 mark).
Alternative valid reasons may include: inflation reducing purchasing power, merchant exploitation, or specific uprisings such as hyakushō ikki.
Maximum 6 marks.
