OCR Specification focus:
‘the impact of the arrival of US force under Perry 1853 and the unequal treaties, including France and Russia, of 1858.’
The arrival of Commodore Perry’s expedition in 1853 marked a turning point in Japan’s history, forcing the Tokugawa Shogunate to confront Western power and its consequences.
Background to Perry’s Arrival
In the early nineteenth century, Tokugawa Japan had been governed under the sakoku policy (closed country), which severely restricted foreign trade and contact. This system aimed to preserve political stability, prevent foreign influence, and maintain control over society. However, Western powers—particularly the United States, Britain, Russia, and France—were seeking new markets and coaling stations for their expanding navies. Japan’s strategic location in the Pacific drew particular attention.
By the 1840s and 1850s, American interest in Japan increased, largely because of the growing importance of the whaling industry and the need for safe ports for US ships operating in the Pacific. The US also sought to open trade routes to Asia, especially China, and saw Japan as a gateway.
Commodore Perry’s Expedition of 1853
In July 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry sailed into Edo Bay with a squadron of advanced warships, including steam-powered vessels, known as the “Black Ships”. These represented overwhelming Western military technology and signalled that Japan could not resist through force alone.
Edo-period kawaraban news print showing Perry’s “Black Ships” in Edo Bay in 1853. The imposing steam vessels visualise the naval imbalance that pressured the Tokugawa regime. Source
Perry carried a letter from US President Millard Fillmore demanding:
The opening of Japanese ports to American ships
Protection for shipwrecked sailors
The establishment of a coaling station
A trade agreement
The Shogunate, already weakened by internal tensions, faced a dilemma. Resistance risked devastating defeat; compliance meant undermining the sakoku system and exposing itself to criticism from traditionalist factions.
The Treaty of Kanagawa (1854)
After returning with an even larger fleet in 1854, Perry secured the Treaty of Kanagawa, which marked the beginning of Japan’s forced opening:
Two ports (Shimoda and Hakodate) opened for American ships
Shipwrecked sailors granted protection
US given the right to establish a consul in Japan
Though limited in scope, this treaty undermined Japan’s autonomy and represented the first significant breach in the closed country policy.
The Unequal Treaties of 1858
The Kanagawa Treaty opened the door for other Western powers to press their demands. By 1858, Japan was compelled to sign a series of unequal treaties, starting with the Harris Treaty (1858) with the United States, negotiated by US Consul Townsend Harris.
Key Features of the Harris Treaty
Opening of additional ports (Kanagawa, Nagasaki, Niigata, Hyogo) to foreign trade
Extraterritoriality: Foreign nationals subject to their own consular courts, not Japanese law
Low import-export tariffs fixed by foreign powers, limiting Japan’s control over its economy
Establishment of foreign settlements within treaty ports
Extraterritoriality: A legal principle by which foreign citizens in a host country are tried under their own nation’s laws, not those of the host country.
Soon after, Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Russia negotiated similar agreements, creating a network of unequal treaties. These arrangements eroded Japan’s sovereignty and exposed deep vulnerabilities in the Tokugawa regime.
Impact on Japanese Society and Politics
The arrival of Perry and the unequal treaties triggered wide-ranging consequences:
Political Instability
The Shogunate’s decision to comply angered daimyō (regional lords) and samurai who demanded resistance against foreign intrusion.
This split between pro-opening and pro-isolationist factions undermined central authority.
Discontent contributed to the rise of the sonnō jōi (“Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians”) movement, which linked opposition to foreigners with the call to restore imperial power.
Economic Disruption
Fixed low tariffs meant Japan lost control over its trade revenues.
Foreign merchants introduced new goods, causing inflation and price instability.
Japanese silver rapidly flowed out of the country due to unequal exchange rates, damaging the economy.
Social Tensions
Peasants and townspeople suffered from inflation, rising rice prices, and shortages.
Discontent among the lower classes added pressure on the Shogunate, already weakened by famine and disease in previous decades.
Cultural Shock
Exposure to Western technology, weaponry, and ideas revealed Japan’s backwardness in comparison to industrial powers.
While some elites saw this as a humiliation, others viewed Western knowledge as an opportunity for modernisation.
International Dimensions
United States: Achieved its goals of opening ports, enhancing Pacific whaling and trade routes.
Britain and France: Sought to extend influence in East Asia after the Opium Wars in China.
Russia: Pursued influence in northern Japan, particularly Hokkaido and Sakhalin.
The arrival of multiple Western powers created intense external pressure on Japan, leaving it with little room for manoeuvre.
Significance for the Decline of the Tokugawa Shogunate
The forced opening of Japan by Perry and the imposition of unequal treaties critically undermined the legitimacy of the Tokugawa Shogunate:
Demonstrated military inferiority in the face of Western naval power
Exposed the regime’s inability to defend national sovereignty
Fuelled growing demands for change, both from radical samurai and reformist intellectuals
Contributed directly to the civil unrest and eventual collapse of the Shogunate in the 1860s
The treaties and the humiliation of foreign dominance became a key catalyst for the Meiji Restoration, when political authority shifted back to the Emperor in 1868, setting Japan on a new path of modernisation and imperial ambition.
FAQ
Perry was chosen because of his reputation as a decisive naval commander and his experience in both diplomacy and naval modernisation. The US government wanted someone capable of intimidating Japan into agreement while maintaining formal diplomatic conduct.
His command of advanced steam-powered ships added to the display of power, ensuring the Japanese could not ignore the request for negotiations.
Japanese officials were shocked but attempted to delay. They insisted that negotiations occur in Uraga rather than Edo, hoping to reduce direct pressure on the Shogunate.
They also deployed traditional coastal defences and massed troops to signal readiness, even though these forces were militarily ineffective against Perry’s fleet.
Harris became the first official US consul in Japan, stationed at Shimoda. His role was to establish closer ties and negotiate further agreements.
He successfully pressed for the Harris Treaty of 1858 by:
Highlighting Japan’s vulnerability to European powers
Emphasising benefits of trade with the US
Using gradual diplomacy rather than overt threats
Extraterritoriality denied Japan legal sovereignty over foreigners within its borders.
This meant:
Foreigners accused of crimes were tried in their own consular courts
Japanese authorities had little control in treaty ports
It symbolised Japan’s weakness compared to Western powers
For leaders, it was a stark reminder of unequal status in the international system.
Many were terrified by the sight of steam-powered warships, unlike anything seen in Japan before. Rumours circulated that the ships “breathed smoke” like dragons.
Some peasants and townspeople spread woodblock prints and kawaraban news sheets, dramatising the arrival. These popular depictions often exaggerated the ships’ size, reinforcing the sense of national vulnerability.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Commodore Perry first arrive in Japan, and what was the name given by the Japanese to his steam-powered ships?
Mark Scheme
1 mark for identifying the year 1853.
1 mark for stating the ships were known as the “Black Ships”.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two consequences for Japan of the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854).
Mark Scheme
Up to 3 marks per consequence explained.
Consequence 1: Opening of two ports (Shimoda and Hakodate) to US ships (1 mark). Protection of shipwrecked sailors (1 mark). Undermining of the closed country (sakoku) policy (1 mark).
Consequence 2: Establishment of a US consul in Japan (1 mark). Increased Western influence and precedent for further unequal treaties (1 mark). Political tension within Japan, as the Shogunate’s authority was questioned (1 mark).
Maximum 6 marks: awarded for clear explanation of two consequences, with development beyond simple identification.
