OCR Specification focus:
‘resistance to the Shogunate ; civil war’
Japan’s late Tokugawa era was marked by rising opposition to the Shogunate, driven by political weakness, foreign intrusion, and powerful domains challenging central authority.
The Shogunate under Pressure
By the mid-19th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate (military government headed by the shogun) faced deepening internal and external pressures. Its legitimacy, once unquestioned, began to erode under the weight of foreign intrusion and social unrest. The arrival of Commodore Perry in 1853 and subsequent treaties exposed Japan’s vulnerability, undermining the shogun’s prestige as protector of the realm.
Sources of Weakness
Military inferiority: The shogunate could not resist Western powers militarily, forcing humiliating concessions.
Factional divisions: Opposition from daimyo (regional lords) weakened central authority.
Loss of prestige: The Tokugawa had been guardians of peace for over 250 years, but their failure to repel foreign intrusion raised doubts about their legitimacy.
The Rise of Resistance Movements
The response to foreign threats split Japanese society. Some sought modernisation to resist Western powers, while others advocated the expulsion of foreigners. Both camps, however, increasingly blamed the shogunate.
Sonnō Jōi
Sonnō Jōi: A slogan meaning “Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians,” reflecting a movement that combined loyalty to the imperial throne with hostility to foreigners.
The Sonnō Jōi movement united samurai discontent and popular frustration. Its advocates argued that only the emperor could rally Japan against foreign encroachment. This movement directly challenged the shogunate’s political supremacy.
Imperial Court as Opposition Centre
The imperial court in Kyoto, previously sidelined under Tokugawa rule, became a hub of resistance. Court nobles worked with radical samurai to undermine the shogun’s position, reviving the emperor’s symbolic authority as an alternative source of legitimacy.
Domains Leading Resistance
Certain powerful domains spearheaded opposition to Tokugawa rule. These domains resented Tokugawa dominance and saw opportunity in foreign crisis.
Chōshū Domain
Adopted a fiercely anti-foreign stance, attempting to close the straits of Shimonoseki to Western ships.
Militarily resisted shogunate punitive expeditions, showcasing the Tokugawa’s declining strength.
Satsuma Domain
Initially cooperated with the shogunate but shifted to opposition after the Namamugi Incident (1862) and subsequent Western attack on Kagoshima.
Strengthened military capacity using Western arms and technology.
Satsuma–Chōshū Alliance
In 1866, these domains forged the Satsuma–Chōshū alliance, a decisive step in creating a unified front against the Tokugawa regime. Their cooperation combined political influence, military resources, and ideological legitimacy.
Map showing the western domains whose leaders spearheaded opposition to the shogunate. Satsuma and Chōshū are highlighted, with Tosa and Saga also indicated as allied domains. Source
Civil War Against the Shogunate
The confrontation culminated in armed conflict between shogunate forces and opposition domains.
The Boshin War (1868–1869)
Boshin War: A civil war between the Tokugawa shogunate and forces supporting the restoration of imperial rule, fought across Japan from 1868 to 1869.
The Boshin War began with the Battle of Toba–Fushimi (January 1868), where shogunate troops were decisively defeated. Many Tokugawa allies quickly switched sides, recognising the momentum of imperial forces.
Campaign map of the Boshin War, 1868–69, showing initial clashes near Kyoto/Osaka and the subsequent northern advance of imperial forces. Arrows and labels trace major engagements and the final stand in Hokkaidō. This visual clarifies how early defeats triggered widespread defections and rapid territorial changes. Source
Factors in the Shogunate’s Defeat
Military imbalance: Opposition domains had modern rifles and artillery, often purchased from Western traders.
Defections: Many daimyo abandoned the Tokugawa after early defeats.
Imperial legitimacy: Fighting under the emperor’s banner inspired loyalty and morale among anti-shogunate forces.
The war ended with the fall of Edo (Tokyo) in 1868. Though Tokugawa loyalists resisted in northern Japan and Hokkaido, their defeat was inevitable.
Role of the Emperor
The emperor, long marginalised, became central to the resistance narrative. His symbolic status provided unity and legitimacy for those seeking to overthrow the Tokugunate.
The Meiji Restoration
The victory of imperial forces led to the Meiji Restoration, the formal abolition of shogunate rule and the restoration of direct imperial authority. This marked a profound turning point in Japanese history, setting the stage for rapid modernisation.
Wider Consequences of Resistance
The resistance to the shogunate had profound implications beyond the civil war itself.
Political Transformation
The collapse of the shogunate ended over 250 years of Tokugawa rule.
Power shifted decisively to the emperor and his advisors, though in practice domains like Satsuma and Chōshū wielded major influence.
Social Change
Samurai role transformed: Many samurai had been central in resisting the shogunate, but soon they would face the erosion of their privileges under Meiji reforms.
Popular support for the emperor grew, reshaping Japan’s political culture.
Foreign Relations
Ironically, the anti-foreign rhetoric of Sonnō Jōi gave way to pragmatic engagement with the West once the Tokugawa had fallen. Resistance had been less about isolationism and more about regime change.
Key Points to Remember
Resistance was both ideological (imperial loyalty, anti-foreignism) and practical (domain rivalry, military opposition).
The civil war (Boshin War) ended Tokugawa rule and restored imperial power.
The emperor’s role was central, providing legitimacy against the shogunate.
Victory for the resistance opened the way for modernisation under Meiji Japan, though this lay beyond the scope of this subsubtopic.
FAQ
The Shinsengumi were a special police force created by the Tokugawa to suppress radical samurai in Kyoto. They became infamous for their strict discipline and violent methods.
They patrolled the capital, rooting out supporters of Sonnō Jōi and executing suspected rebels. Despite their ferocity, their efforts could not prevent the growing momentum of the imperial cause, and they were ultimately defeated during the Boshin War.
Western powers such as Britain, France, and the United States initially adopted a policy of cautious neutrality.
France provided some military advisers and equipment to Tokugawa loyalists.
Britain leaned towards supporting the imperial side, since many leading domains had purchased arms from British traders.
The limited involvement of foreign powers ensured that the conflict remained primarily an internal Japanese struggle rather than a wider international war.
Edo, the shogunate’s administrative capital, was the political heart of Tokugawa rule. Its fall symbolised the collapse of Tokugawa authority.
The peaceful surrender of Edo Castle by Tokugawa Yoshinobu prevented mass destruction in the city. This allowed the new Meiji government to consolidate power swiftly, projecting an image of order and continuity under imperial rule.
Imperial forces spread imperial edicts and proclamations declaring the restoration of the emperor’s authority. These documents were distributed to local domains to encourage loyalty.
Visual propaganda, including banners bearing the imperial chrysanthemum crest, helped legitimise the movement. The symbolic use of the emperor’s name and authority rallied domains hesitant to oppose the Tokugawa openly.
Defeated Tokugawa loyalists fled north to establish the short-lived Ezo Republic in Hokkaidō, led by former shogunate officers.
They declared an independent republic in 1869, inspired by Western political models.
The venture ended with the Battle of Hakodate, when imperial forces crushed resistance.
The episode demonstrated both the Tokugawa’s determination to resist and the inevitability of imperial victory.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the slogan of the Sonnō Jōi movement, and what did it mean?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly stating the slogan: “Sonnō Jōi”.
1 mark for giving the meaning: “Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians”.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why the Tokugawa Shogunate was unable to defeat the opposition domains during the Boshin War (1868–1869).
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained clearly.
Award marks for points such as:
Military inferiority (1 mark) – opposition domains had access to modern rifles and artillery (1 mark), often purchased from Western traders, giving them a decisive advantage (1 mark).
Defections of daimyo (1 mark) – many Tokugawa allies switched sides after early defeats (1 mark), further undermining the shogunate’s capacity to continue fighting (1 mark).
Imperial legitimacy (1 mark) – imperial forces fought under the emperor’s banner (1 mark), boosting morale and encouraging wider support (1 mark).
Maximum 6 marks. Two reasons are required for full marks.
