AP Syllabus focus:
‘Belief in republican government and natural rights appeared in Thomas Paine’s Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence, shaping Americans’ understanding of national ideals.’
Emerging revolutionary sentiment crystallized as colonists embraced powerful new arguments for independence, with Paine’s Common Sense and the Declaration articulating republicanism, natural rights, and a compelling political vision.
The Intellectual Climate Behind Revolutionary Arguments
During the mid-1770s, colonial political thought increasingly drew upon Enlightenment ideas, especially the belief that legitimate governments arise from the consent of the governed. These concepts shaped how Americans interpreted British policies and how they began constructing a distinctly republican political identity that rejected hereditary rule. Paine and Jefferson both advanced arguments grounded in natural rights philosophy, empowering ordinary colonists to envision a radically new political order.
Enlightenment Roots of Paine and Jefferson’s Claims
The writings of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and other Enlightenment thinkers circulated widely in the colonies, emphasizing individual liberty, civic equality, and limitations on governmental power. These ideas prepared the intellectual groundwork for more direct arguments for independence between 1775 and 1776.
Natural Rights: Fundamental rights inherent to all people, including life, liberty, and property, which no government may legitimately infringe.
Because these ideas were already familiar, both Common Sense and the Declaration resonated deeply by articulating principles many colonists were prepared to accept, even if they had not yet embraced a complete break with Britain.
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense: A Transformative Pamphlet
Published in January 1776, Paine’s Common Sense became one of the most influential political texts of the era.
Title page of Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense (1776), addressed “to the inhabitants of America.” The page lists the major subject areas Paine develops, including the origin and design of government, monarchy and hereditary succession, and the state and ability of America. The period typography and spelling exceed syllabus requirements but help contextualize the document historically. Source.
Paine wrote in logical, accessible language, ensuring that his arguments appealed not only to elites but also to artisans, farmers, and laborers.
Key Arguments Presented in Common Sense
Critique of Monarchy
Paine rejected the legitimacy of monarchy and aristocracy, arguing that hereditary succession violated natural equality and encouraged corruption.Necessity of Independence
He insisted that reconciliation with Britain was impossible because the empire’s interests fundamentally conflicted with American welfare and security.Republican Government as the Ideal
Paine promoted a republic, defined as a government deriving authority from the people rather than a king or hereditary elite.
Republican Government: A political system in which power originates from the people, who exercise authority through elected representatives.
Paine also emphasized America’s potential—geographically, economically, and politically—to flourish independently. His confidence in the continent’s future helped transform public opinion by presenting independence as both logical and urgent.
Popular Impact
Common Sense achieved unprecedented circulation, reinforcing existing criticism of British rule while offering a coherent justification for separation. By framing independence as common judgment rather than radical ideology, Paine helped align ordinary colonists with Patriot leaders who had previously struggled to persuade the public.
The Declaration of Independence: Articulating a National Vision
Approved on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence asserted the colonies’ separation from Britain while setting forth foundational political principles that would shape American identity long after 1776.
Jefferson’s Argument Structure
The Declaration contains three essential sections:
A statement of natural rights, presenting a universal justification for political authority.
A list of grievances, detailing how King George III violated those rights and the colonists’ expectations as British subjects.
A formal declaration of independence, asserting that the colonies now possessed the status of a sovereign nation.
The famous assertion that “all men are created equal” connected Enlightenment principles to political action, framing equality and liberty as essential components of legitimate governance.
Consent of the Governed: The principle that a government’s legitimacy derives from the voluntary agreement of the people it governs.
The grievances section offered concrete evidence that Britain had breached this principle through taxation without representation, obstruction of colonial legislatures, and deployment of military force against civilians. These arguments made independence appear not only desirable but necessary.
Connections Between Common Sense and the Declaration
While the two documents serve different purposes, they share key ideas that collectively shaped American revolutionary ideology.
Shared Themes
Rejection of Monarchical Authority
Both texts denounce monarchy as incompatible with natural rights and political virtue.Emphasis on Republicanism
Each source promotes government grounded in popular sovereignty, rather than hereditary rule.Universal Principles
Paine and Jefferson use accessible, universal language to assert that political rights belong to all individuals, not just elites.
Influence on Colonial Society
The combination of Paine’s accessible pamphlet and the Declaration’s formal articulation of principles helped consolidate colonial unity. These works provided both emotional appeal and philosophical justification, enabling diverse groups—farmers, merchants, artisans, and intellectuals—to rally behind a shared vision for an independent republic.
Detail of John Trumbull’s painting of the presentation of the Declaration of Independence. The drafting committee stands before John Hancock as they offer the document, symbolizing the moment Enlightenment and republican ideas were translated into political action. The artistic reconstruction includes decorative details and individualized likenesses not required by the syllabus but helps illustrate the broader cultural significance of the Declaration. Source.
Transforming American Political Identity
Together, Common Sense and the Declaration cemented core ideals that would shape the early republic. By popularizing concepts such as natural rights, republican government, and popular sovereignty, they laid intellectual foundations for American political culture. The texts not only justified independence in 1776 but also established enduring national ideals that influenced debates over citizenship, governance, and equality throughout the new nation’s development.
FAQ
Common Sense sold more than 100,000 copies within its first few months, an extraordinary figure for colonial America. Its plain language and inexpensive price meant that it reached readers far beyond political elites.
This rapid spread mattered because it allowed ordinary colonists to encounter arguments for independence in a format they could understand and share. It helped create a broad, grassroots political conversation that legitimised the break with Britain.
Paine wrote in direct, forceful prose rather than the classical, heavily referenced style typical of eighteenth-century political essays. This marked a conscious effort to make political philosophy accessible.
Key stylistic differences included:
Use of vivid analogies to explain abstract political ideas.
Limited reliance on scholarly citations, favouring common-sense reasoning.
Explicit moral language condemning monarchy and hereditary privilege.
These features helped expand political participation by lowering barriers to understanding.
The grievances served to demonstrate that Britain had repeatedly violated the colonists’ rights, justifying independence as a last resort. Jefferson and the drafting committee intended the list to show a clear historical pattern rather than isolated disputes.
Additionally, the grievances helped unify the colonies:
Different regions could see their individual complaints reflected.
Delegates with varying interests could support a shared document.
It framed independence as a response to systemic injustice rather than impulsive rebellion.
Although Common Sense is often celebrated for its mass appeal, it also reinforced arguments already circulating among congressional leaders. Many delegates had hesitated to endorse independence because of fears about military vulnerability and political instability.
Paine’s clear case for a republic gave political cover to hesitant delegates by showing that public sentiment was shifting. It also provided language and frameworks that appeared later in congressional debates about sovereignty and legitimate authority.
Its use of universal language—speaking of the rights of all people rather than merely the rights of English subjects—made the document intelligible and compelling across cultural and political contexts. Foreign observers could recognise the philosophical arguments even without deep knowledge of colonial grievances.
International impact also stemmed from:
The framing of independence as part of a broader struggle for human liberty.
Its appeal to natural law, which resonated with European intellectuals.
The clarity with which it defined when a people may withdraw allegiance from a government.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (1–3 marks)
Explain one way in which Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense contributed to growing support for American independence in 1776.
Mark scheme:
1 mark: Identifies a valid contribution (e.g., criticised monarchy, promoted republican government, argued reconciliation was impossible).
2 marks: Provides a brief explanation of how this contribution encouraged support for independence.
3 marks: Offers a clear, developed explanation showing how Paine’s arguments helped ordinary colonists embrace republican and natural-rights ideas or reject British rule.
Question 2 (4–6 marks)
Analyse how both Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence reflected Enlightenment beliefs about natural rights and the purpose of government.
Mark scheme:
1–2 marks: Identifies basic Enlightenment ideas present in either text (e.g., natural rights, consent of the governed).
3–4 marks: Explains how each text applied these ideas, such as Paine’s attack on monarchy or the Declaration’s articulation of inherent rights and grievances.
5–6 marks: Provides a well-reasoned analysis directly comparing or linking the two documents, showing how they collectively expressed Enlightenment political philosophy and shaped colonial understanding of legitimate government.
