The Third Crusade was launched in response to Saladin’s conquest of Jerusalem, aiming to reclaim lost territory and restore Christian control in the Holy Land.
The Preaching of the Crusade
Pope Gregory VIII’s Call to Arms
The fall of Jerusalem on 2 October 1187 caused widespread shock throughout Western Christendom. The loss of the Holy City, combined with the crushing defeat of the crusader forces at the Battle of Hattin in July of the same year, compelled Pope Gregory VIII to issue a vigorous response.
In October 1187, Pope Gregory issued the papal bull Audita tremendi, a stirring proclamation that attributed the military catastrophe to the sins and moral failings of Christians across Europe.
The bull urged a collective act of penance, proclaiming that only through taking up the cross and embarking on a crusade could Christians atone for their transgressions and regain divine favour.
The bull framed the conflict as an act of holy war, reinvigorating the crusading ideal with strong apocalyptic overtones. Gregory appealed to both spiritual salvation and chivalric honour, calling upon the nobility and commoners alike.
Crusaders were promised full remission of sins—a powerful motivator in a society deeply concerned with the afterlife and divine judgement.
Preachers spread the message across Europe, with monarchs, barons, and knights committing to the cause. Gregory died shortly after issuing the bull, but his successor, Pope Clement III, continued his work by maintaining the spiritual momentum for the crusade.
Leadership and Preparations
Monarchs of Christendom Respond
The Third Crusade was marked by the unprecedented participation of Europe’s most powerful monarchs, whose involvement gave the expedition great military potential and symbolic weight.
Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick was a seasoned crusader, having participated in the Second Crusade. At over sixty years old, he was the most experienced leader to answer Gregory’s call.
He took the cross in March 1188 after meeting with Philip II of France and Henry II of England at the Diet of Mainz.
Frederick mobilised a vast army estimated at over 15,000 men, including knights, foot soldiers, and siege engineers, and took an overland route through Hungary, the Balkans, and Anatolia.
He negotiated with the Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos for safe passage, though tensions arose due to Greek suspicion of Western intentions.
His army was well-disciplined and avoided the disorganised conduct that plagued earlier crusades, maintaining order and focusing on the objective of reaching the Holy Land.
Richard I of England
Richard, known as Coeur de Lion (the Lionheart), took the cross even before becoming king in 1189.
His motivations included genuine religious devotion, a thirst for military glory, and dynastic rivalry with Philip II.
To finance the crusade, Richard levied the Saladin Tithe, a 10 percent tax on income and movable goods across England. He also sold royal lands and offices to raise further funds.
He assembled a large and well-equipped force, with a powerful fleet and elite contingents of knights and crossbowmen.
Richard’s military reputation and charismatic leadership inspired loyalty, though he was also headstrong and politically inflexible.
Philip II of France
Philip II took the cross alongside Henry II at the Gisors Conference in 1188, marking a rare moment of Anglo-French cooperation.
His motives were complex: religious duty, personal prestige, and the desire to counterbalance Richard’s growing power.
Though not as admired for military leadership as Richard or Frederick, Philip contributed considerable resources, including troops, siege equipment, and naval support.
Logistical Challenges
The leaders prepared separately: Frederick travelled by land; Richard and Philip sailed by sea.
Coordination was complicated by geography, political rivalry, and differing priorities.
The journey was long and arduous. Disease, supply shortages, and diplomatic delays posed major threats to cohesion and morale.
Major Events of the Crusade
The Death of Frederick Barbarossa (1190)
On 10 June 1190, while crossing the Göksu River in Cilicia, Frederick drowned, possibly due to a heart attack or being pulled under by heavy armour.
His sudden death led to chaos in the army. Many soldiers abandoned the crusade and returned home; others died from disease or attacks.
Only a small remnant, led by his son Frederick of Swabia, continued to Acre, but the loss of imperial leadership was a severe blow to the crusade’s strength and prestige.
The Siege of Acre (1189–1191)
The city of Acre, a vital port in northern Palestine, became the centrepiece of the crusader effort to regain control of the Holy Land.
Guy of Lusignan, claimant to the throne of Jerusalem, began the siege in August 1189 to enhance his political standing.
The siege dragged on for two years, becoming a magnet for reinforcements from Europe and a key test of strength between crusaders and Saladin.
Conditions in the Christian camp were horrific—plague, dysentery, and supply shortages caused thousands of deaths.
Philip arrived in April 1191, followed by Richard in June. Their joint forces applied immense pressure on the city.
Acre finally capitulated on 12 July 1191. It was a symbolic and strategic victory, re-establishing a Christian foothold and giving the crusaders a much-needed base.
Aftermath:
Saladin agreed to surrender the city in exchange for a ransom and prisoner exchange.
When negotiations stalled, Richard ordered the execution of 2,700 Muslim prisoners—including women and children—in front of Saladin’s lines on 20 August 1191, shocking contemporaries and provoking reprisals.
The Battle of Arsuf (7 September 1191)
As the crusaders marched south from Acre to Jaffa, Saladin harassed their column with hit-and-run attacks.
Near Arsuf, Saladin launched a full-scale assault on the rearguard, which included the Knights Hospitaller.
Richard, exercising remarkable battlefield control, held back until the moment was right, then launched a counter-charge that broke Saladin’s lines.
The victory demonstrated Richard’s tactical brilliance, boosted crusader morale, and secured the coastal route to Jaffa.
The Failed Advance on Jerusalem
Despite gaining momentum, the crusaders never recaptured Jerusalem.
In winter 1191–92 and again in the summer of 1192, the army advanced toward the city but turned back.
Key reasons included:
Fear of being trapped without supply lines.
Richard’s belief that the city could not be held if captured.
Disunity among the crusaders, especially over who should rule Jerusalem.
Instead of besieging the city, Richard focused on fortifying key ports like Jaffa and Ascalon.
Leadership Tensions and Political Divisions
Anglo-French Rivalry
Tensions between Richard and Philip, longstanding rivals, quickly escalated.
Disputes over the rightful king of Jerusalem were particularly divisive:
Philip backed Conrad of Montferrat, a capable and popular leader.
Richard supported Guy of Lusignan, who was less respected.
The dispute caused bitter factionalism within the crusader camp.
Philip departed the Holy Land in July 1191, officially due to illness but also motivated by concern over Richard’s growing prestige and the situation in France.
His withdrawal left Richard with full command but also heightened diplomatic isolation.
Richard’s Disputes with Allies
Richard alienated key allies, including Leopold V of Austria, after removing his banner from Acre’s walls.
After Conrad of Montferrat was elected King of Jerusalem in April 1192, he was assassinated days later by Assassins—a secretive Islamic sect.
Suspicion fell on Richard, particularly because of his prior support for Guy and links with the Assassins, damaging his reputation among crusaders and enemies alike.
Military Outcomes and Truce
Gains and Limitations
The crusade achieved several major victories:
The coastal corridor from Tyre to Jaffa was reclaimed.
Key ports were fortified, ensuring Christian survival in the Levant.
Saladin suffered multiple tactical defeats and failed to expel the crusaders from the region.
However, the failure to retake Jerusalem undermined the strategic purpose of the expedition.
Despite military successes, political disunity and logistical constraints limited the overall outcome.
The Truce of 1192
In September 1192, Richard and Saladin signed a three-year, eight-month truce:
Christians retained control of the coastline from Tyre to Jaffa.
Muslim control of Jerusalem was confirmed.
Christian pilgrims were guaranteed safe passage to the holy sites in Jerusalem and Bethlehem.
Both sides agreed to cease hostilities for the duration of the truce.
Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192. He was later captured by Leopold of Austria on his journey home, highlighting the unresolved tensions among Christian leaders.
Legacy and Impact
On Western Christendom
The crusade partially restored Christian prestige, but its incomplete objectives disappointed many.
Richard emerged as a crusading hero, his reputation enhanced by battlefield success and chivalric virtues.
Nevertheless, the campaign exposed deep divisions within Christendom—among monarchs, factions, and regional interests.
The inability to unite behind a shared strategic vision foreshadowed future crusading failures.
On Saladin and the Muslim World
Saladin retained control of Jerusalem and the interior, safeguarding the political and religious legitimacy of his rule.
He was praised for his restraint, magnanimity, and devotion to jihad, even in defeat.
The truce allowed him to regroup, though he died in 1193, a year later, having spent his wealth on military efforts and religious foundations.
His reputation grew in both Islamic and Western narratives, becoming an enduring figure of chivalry and resistance.
FAQ
Richard I understood that holding Jerusalem without secure supply lines and coastal bases would be unsustainable. His military strategy reflected practical considerations rather than symbolic aims. Capturing and fortifying ports like Acre and Jaffa allowed the Crusaders to maintain a steady flow of reinforcements and provisions from Europe. Jerusalem, being inland and surrounded by hostile territory, was vulnerable to counterattack and would be nearly impossible to defend without consistent access to resources. Moreover, Richard was cautious of the disunity among the Crusader leaders and the lack of sufficient troops to besiege and garrison the city. Weather, illness, and low morale among his forces also factored into his decision-making. While Jerusalem remained the spiritual goal, Richard believed that a long-term Christian presence in the Levant could only be maintained through military realism, not symbolic conquest. By focusing on coastal strongholds, he aimed to ensure strategic depth and future crusading success.
Muslim diplomacy, especially under Saladin’s leadership, was instrumental in shaping the course of the Third Crusade. Despite the ideological framing of jihad, Saladin frequently engaged in negotiations with the Crusaders, recognising the value of diplomacy in securing temporary peace and preserving military strength. He communicated directly with Richard I through emissaries, exchanging letters and proposals throughout the campaign. These negotiations centred on prisoner exchanges, ransom payments, and the status of Jerusalem. Saladin also proposed marriage alliances between his family and Frankish nobility as part of broader peace settlements, although these were never realised. Crucially, diplomacy culminated in the Truce of Jaffa (1192), which acknowledged mutual control over specific territories and ensured safe pilgrimage access to Jerusalem for Christians. Saladin’s willingness to negotiate reflected his pragmatic approach to leadership, allowing him to balance military commitments with internal stability across his empire. His diplomatic conduct earned him respect from both Muslim and Christian contemporaries.
The fall of Acre in July 1191 was a significant morale booster for the Crusaders. After a gruelling two-year siege marked by disease, famine, and heavy casualties, the capture of the city was seen as a divine vindication of their efforts and a turning point in the campaign. Politically, it restored a crucial base of operations and became the new capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, as the original capital remained under Muslim control. Control of Acre allowed the Crusaders to receive reinforcements, supplies, and communication from the West, revitalising their strategic position. It also gave Richard I and Philip II substantial leverage in shaping the future of the Crusader states, particularly in their rival claims over Guy of Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat. However, the brutal execution of Muslim prisoners by Richard following the siege drew criticism and risked hardening Saladin’s stance. Despite this, the psychological and logistical advantages gained by the Crusaders were immense.
Conrad of Montferrat’s assassination in April 1192, shortly after being elected King of Jerusalem, caused immediate political turmoil within the Crusader leadership. The identity of his assassins—members of the Nizari Isma'ili sect known as the Assassins—added a layer of mystery and suspicion to the event. While the exact motive remains unclear, many contemporaries suspected Richard I’s involvement, as he had previously backed Guy of Lusignan for the throne. The murder undermined the fragile unity among the Crusaders and intensified rivalries between the French and English factions. It also created a leadership vacuum, quickly filled by the marriage of Conrad’s widow, Isabella, to Henry of Champagne, Richard’s nephew, in a politically expedient move. Though this alliance helped stabilise the kingdom, the assassination exposed the precariousness of Crusader politics and the danger of internal disputes. It also allowed Saladin to exploit divisions among his enemies, buying him time to regroup and negotiate from a position of strength.
The Italian maritime republics—particularly Genoa, Pisa, and Venice—played a crucial but often understated role in the logistics and progression of the Third Crusade. Their fleets transported men, supplies, and horses across the Mediterranean, enabling the large-scale mobilisation of forces from Europe to the Levant. These cities had commercial and political interests in the eastern Mediterranean and viewed the crusade as both a religious mission and an opportunity to expand their trading empires. Genoese and Pisan ships were vital during the siege of Acre, providing naval support and siege equipment. In return, the Crusaders granted them favourable trading rights and property within captured cities. Their involvement also intensified the commercialisation of crusading, blurring the lines between religious zeal and economic interest. The influence of these states shaped the geography of Christian holdings along the coast, as ports like Acre and Tyre became hubs for trade and military resupply, ensuring the sustainability of the Crusader presence.
Practice Questions
To what extent was the Third Crusade a military success for the Crusaders?
The Third Crusade was a partial military success. Though it failed to recapture Jerusalem, it secured key coastal cities such as Acre and Jaffa, re-establishing a strong Christian presence in the region. Richard I’s victories, particularly at Arsuf, demonstrated tactical brilliance and weakened Saladin’s forces. However, internal divisions and logistical challenges prevented a final push to Jerusalem. The resulting truce ensured Christian access to holy sites, preserving a degree of religious influence. While the Crusade fell short of its ultimate aim, it stabilised the Latin East and revitalised crusading efforts, making it a limited but significant military achievement.
Explain how leadership rivalries affected the outcome of the Third Crusade.
Leadership rivalries critically undermined the unity and effectiveness of the Crusade. Richard I and Philip II’s disputes over the rightful king of Jerusalem created factionalism among the Crusaders. Philip’s early departure in 1191 left Richard isolated, while his disputes with Leopold of Austria and suspicion surrounding Conrad of Montferrat’s assassination alienated key allies. These tensions distracted from strategic objectives, delaying action against Jerusalem. Richard’s dominance in the later stages led to military gains, but his inability to command widespread support hindered broader goals. Ultimately, leadership rivalries limited the Crusade’s success and reinforced the fragile cohesion of Christendom.
