The Nazi regime from 1934 to 1945 was marked by a fragmented governance structure, brutal repression, limited opposition, and intensifying control during the war years.
Hitler’s Leadership and the Polycratic State
Führerprinzip and Hitler’s Leadership Style
Führerprinzip (Leader Principle) was central to Nazi ideology. It declared that ultimate authority resided in the Führer, whose will was above all law.
Adolf Hitler positioned himself as the embodiment of the German nation, avoiding routine administration and preferring to issue broad directives, leaving subordinates to interpret and execute them.
This created a system of "working towards the Führer", where officials anticipated his wishes to gain favour, fostering extremism and competition.
Fragmentation and Duplication: The Polycratic State
The Nazi government lacked a unified command structure. Instead, it was polycratic, meaning power was spread across competing agencies and individuals.
Institutions overlapped in function, with party, state, military, and personal networks all vying for influence.
Key examples include:
Multiple security agencies (e.g. Gestapo, SD, SS) operating with overlapping authority.
Ministerial rivalry, especially between the Economics Ministry and agencies under Göring.
This decentralised model allowed Hitler to remain above day-to-day governance, strengthening his image as an unchallengeable leader while chaos below him discouraged organised dissent.
Roles of Key Nazi Leaders
Heinrich Himmler
As head of the SS (Schutzstaffel), Himmler was pivotal in implementing terror and racial policy.
Controlled the Gestapo, concentration camps, and later the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA).
Directed policies leading to the Holocaust, overseeing the mass extermination of Jews, Roma, and other groups.
Embodied ideological zealotry and was instrumental in the expansion of state repression.
Joseph Goebbels
Minister of Propaganda and Public Enlightenment.
Controlled media, literature, film, and the arts to ensure Nazi ideology permeated all aspects of life.
Organised events like the Nuremberg Rallies and book burnings to unify public sentiment.
His influence grew during the war, especially after 1943 when he advocated for Total War and mobilised civilians for the war effort.
Hermann Göring
Initially Hitler’s designated successor and head of the Luftwaffe (Air Force).
Played a leading role in rearmament and initiated the Four-Year Plan (1936) to prepare Germany for war.
Created a vast industrial empire through the Reichswerke Hermann Göring and profited from looted Jewish property.
His declining influence in the later war years, due to military failures and corruption, reflects the internal power struggles of the Nazi elite.
Martin Bormann
Rose in prominence as Hitler’s private secretary and head of the Nazi Party Chancellery.
Controlled access to Hitler and became a powerful bureaucratic figure.
Played a key role in domestic policy, especially regarding anti-Church measures and racial legislation.
His power illustrates how proximity to Hitler and control over communication channels could yield immense influence.
The Nazi ‘Terror State’
The SS and Gestapo
The SS, originally Hitler’s bodyguard unit, evolved into a vast organisation overseeing security, racial policy, and the concentration camp system.
The Gestapo (Secret State Police), under SS control, monitored political dissent, arrested without warrant, and used torture and intimidation.
Operating with near-total autonomy, both agencies contributed to a climate of fear and conformity.
Concentration Camps
Initially used to detain political opponents (e.g. Communists, Social Democrats), camps expanded to imprison Jews, Roma, Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, and others deemed "asocial".
Post-1939, camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka, and Sobibor became extermination centres in the implementation of the Final Solution.
Conditions were brutal, with forced labour, medical experiments, and mass murder.
Censorship and Control
All forms of communication were censored to prevent dissent and promote Nazi ideology.
Radio broadcasts, newspapers, films, and school textbooks were strictly regulated.
The People’s Receiver (Volksempfänger) ensured access only to Nazi-approved broadcasts.
The Reich Chamber of Culture, under Goebbels, enforced conformity in all artistic expressions.
Opposition and Resistance to the Regime
Youth Opposition
Edelweiss Pirates: Working-class youth who rejected the militaristic Hitler Youth model; engaged in anti-Nazi graffiti, beat up Hitler Youth patrols, and helped deserters.
Swing Youth: Middle-class teenagers who embraced American and British culture (jazz, swing music) in defiance of Nazi norms; targeted by the Gestapo for "degeneracy".
Religious Resistance
Catholic Church: Limited opposition; protested over issues like euthanasia (e.g. Bishop von Galen in 1941), but generally refrained from systemic resistance.
Protestant opposition: The Confessing Church, led by Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer, resisted state interference in religious life. Bonhoeffer joined the military resistance and was executed in 1945.
Army and Elite Opposition
Some military leaders became disillusioned with Hitler’s conduct of war.
The July Plot (1944), led by Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg, attempted to assassinate Hitler and initiate a coup. The failure led to mass executions of over 5,000 suspects.
Despite its impact, the resistance was fragmented and lacked broad support.
Limitations of Opposition
The Terror State, combined with extensive propaganda and the initial popularity of Nazi achievements, made resistance risky and marginal.
Many Germans supported or tolerated the regime, especially during periods of economic recovery and military success.
Impact of the Second World War on Nazi Governance
Intensification of Repression
War provided justification for increased surveillance and harsher punishments.
The SS expanded its operations into occupied territories, establishing ghettos and camps.
Forced labour became widespread; millions were deported from conquered areas to work in German industries.
Administrative Strains and Decline of Governance
As the war dragged on, Germany faced resource shortages, Allied bombings, and rising internal disorganisation.
The Nazi leadership became more dysfunctional, with rivalries deepening and communications breaking down.
Hitler became increasingly isolated in his bunker, issuing unrealistic orders disconnected from the war situation.
Total War and Civilian Mobilisation
Goebbels’ Total War speech in 1943 demanded complete civilian commitment: longer work hours, women in factories, youth drafted early.
The Volkssturm, a militia of old men and boys, reflected the desperation of the regime in its final months.
Collapse of Authority
By early 1945, Nazi authority was crumbling. Areas of Germany fell into chaos, and local officials acted autonomously.
Despite the devastation, Hitler refused surrender, leading to further loss of life and destruction until his death in April 1945.
FAQ
The polycratic structure of the Nazi government created significant confusion and inefficiencies at local and regional levels. With multiple agencies and officials often responsible for overlapping duties, there was no clear hierarchy or standardised procedure for enacting policy. Local Gauleiters (regional party leaders) wielded considerable autonomous power and frequently interpreted central directives based on their own understanding or ambition. This decentralisation led to variations in how policies—such as anti-Semitic measures, censorship, and mobilisation efforts—were applied across Germany. Moreover, since Hitler rarely issued detailed instructions, officials competed to prove their ideological loyalty by implementing more radical measures, especially in occupied territories. This encouraged a chaotic environment in which extremism flourished. Despite this, the regime’s reliance on terror and surveillance ensured local obedience, while the propaganda machine minimised public awareness of administrative disorder. Therefore, policy implementation was highly inconsistent, driven as much by individual initiative as by central planning, but remained brutally effective.
The Nazi legal system was crucial in consolidating dictatorship and enforcing repression. After 1934, it was reshaped to reflect Nazi ideology, abandoning principles of justice and individual rights. The traditional judicial framework was bypassed with the creation of Special Courts and the People’s Court (Volksgerichtshof), which handled political offences. These courts had no juries, and defendants had limited rights. Judges were often Nazi Party members or sympathetic to the regime, ensuring politically favourable verdicts. Harsh penalties—including death sentences—were frequently imposed for crimes such as treason, defeatism, or listening to foreign radio broadcasts. Additionally, the principle of legality was undermined by the use of ‘protective custody’, allowing the Gestapo to imprison individuals without trial. Legal language was often vague, enabling flexible interpretation to punish virtually any behaviour deemed un-German. Law became a tool for state terror, helping institutionalise fear and eliminate resistance. It served to legitimise repression and gave a veneer of legality to acts of brutality.
Nazi governance dramatically transformed the German civil service and bureaucracy into instruments of ideological control. From 1933, the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service purged Jews, political opponents, and those deemed disloyal. This process, known as Gleichschaltung, ensured ideological conformity across government departments. Bureaucrats who remained often prioritised loyalty to the Nazi Party over professional standards. Despite Hitler’s general disdain for bureaucracy, he relied on experienced civil servants to implement his policies. However, the presence of multiple agencies with overlapping functions created administrative rivalry, weakening accountability. Civil servants were expected to ‘work towards the Führer’, leading to self-radicalisation as they attempted to anticipate and fulfil Hitler’s presumed wishes. Many became complicit in atrocities, especially in organising deportations, managing ghettos, and facilitating the Holocaust through logistical planning. Thus, while bureaucracy continued to function, it was no longer neutral—it was fully integrated into the Nazi state’s repressive and genocidal apparatus.
Nazi governance exerted totalitarian control over education and civil society to ensure ideological indoctrination. Schools were reshaped to promote racial ideology, militarism, and obedience to the Führer. Curricula were rewritten: history emphasised Aryan superiority and Germanic nationalism, biology was distorted to support eugenics, and physical education was prioritised to prepare boys for military service. Teachers were required to join the National Socialist Teachers’ League and swear loyalty to Hitler. Universities were purged of Jewish professors and dissenters, with academic freedom curtailed. Civil society institutions like trade unions, youth groups, and voluntary associations were dismantled or brought under Nazi control. Independent organisations were absorbed into the German Labour Front or replaced by state-run groups like the Hitler Youth and League of German Girls. Churches, though not abolished, were closely monitored and infiltrated. These changes created a controlled social environment where dissent was minimal, and Nazi ideology was deeply embedded in daily life and future generations.
Nazi propaganda during the war years was essential in maintaining morale, justifying policies, and reinforcing the regime’s control. Under Joseph Goebbels, the Ministry of Propaganda ensured that all forms of communication—including newspapers, film, radio, posters, and public speeches—followed the party line. At the outset of war, propaganda emphasised swift victories and the righteousness of Germany’s cause, portraying Hitler as a military genius. As the war dragged on, the focus shifted to defensive messaging, using the Total War narrative to rally civilian support for sacrifice. Anti-Semitic propaganda intensified, presenting Jews as internal enemies sabotaging the war effort, helping justify the Holocaust. Propaganda also glorified death for the Fatherland and vilified the Allies, especially the Soviets and Americans. It worked to downplay military defeats and deflect blame for hardships onto traitors or external forces. While propaganda’s effectiveness declined with the realities of defeat, it succeeded for much of the war in sustaining belief in victory and loyalty to the regime.
Practice Questions
To what extent was the Nazi regime from 1934 to 1945 held together by terror?
The Nazi regime was significantly held together by terror, particularly through the SS, Gestapo, and concentration camps which crushed dissent and created widespread fear. However, propaganda, economic success, and Hitler’s popularity also played vital roles. Many Germans genuinely supported the regime, especially during early military victories. While terror ensured compliance, particularly from potential opposition, it was not the sole force sustaining Nazi rule. A combination of ideological appeal, national pride, and coercion worked together. Therefore, although terror was a key pillar, the regime’s stability rested on both repression and a level of popular support.
How significant was the impact of the Second World War on the nature of Nazi governance?
The Second World War greatly intensified the authoritarian nature of Nazi governance. Central control weakened as Hitler withdrew from daily administration, and chaos grew among competing agencies. The SS’s power expanded into occupied territories, enforcing brutal repression. Civilians faced conscription, rationing, and constant surveillance under “Total War” conditions. The war also led to the radicalisation of racial policy, culminating in the Holocaust. Despite this, the core principles of Nazi rule—terror, propaganda, and centralised leadership—remained constant. Thus, the war transformed Nazi governance by deepening existing features and increasing the regime’s reliance on repression and control.
