The years 1459 to 1461 saw the Lancastrian and Yorkist conflict intensify, culminating in Edward IV’s dramatic rise to the throne of England.
The Battle of Ludford Bridge (1459) and Yorkist Exile
After a period of increasing tensions and failed reconciliation attempts, the conflict erupted again in autumn 1459. The Battle of Ludford Bridge, fought near Ludlow on 12 October 1459, marked a significant Yorkist setback.
The Yorkists, led by Richard, Duke of York, alongside his allies the Earl of Salisbury and Earl of Warwick, mustered a sizeable army.
They faced a royalist force under King Henry VI, but many Yorkist troops deserted, partly due to the presence of the king in person.
The Yorkists fled in the night. Richard of York escaped to Ireland, while Warwick, Salisbury, and Edward (York’s son) fled to Calais.
This event showed Yorkist vulnerability, but their retreat was strategic rather than total defeat, allowing them to regroup and plot a return. Their flight also deepened their enmity with the crown, hardening positions on both sides.
The Yorkist Resurgence and Political Strategy
From exile, the Yorkists carefully coordinated their return. Warwick used Calais as a base, maintaining naval power and forging alliances. By summer 1460, the political climate in England had shifted enough for a Yorkist comeback.
In June 1460, Warwick, Salisbury, and Edward landed in Kent and marched to London, receiving widespread support.
At the Battle of Northampton (10 July 1460), the Yorkist army defeated a royal force, aided by treachery within the king’s ranks (notably Lord Grey of Ruthin switching sides).
Henry VI was captured and taken to London. This was a turning point, not just militarily but symbolically — the Yorkists now held the king.
The capture of Henry VI posed a severe challenge to the legitimacy of the Lancastrian regime. Though Henry remained king in name, real power now lay with the Yorkist leaders.
Richard of York’s Return and His Protectorate Ambitions
In October 1460, Richard of York returned from Ireland, dramatically entering Parliament with the royal banner and placing his hand on the throne, expecting to be acknowledged as king.
However, his reception was lukewarm. Parliament and many nobles were unprepared for outright deposition of Henry VI.
Instead of securing the crown, York had to settle for the Act of Accord (October 1460), which disinherited Prince Edward (Henry’s son) and recognised Richard as heir to the throne.
This move outraged Queen Margaret of Anjou and the Lancastrian loyalists, prompting them to raise an army in the north. York, now nominally Lord Protector again, led forces to suppress them — a decision that would prove fatal.
The Battle of Wakefield (1460) and the Death of Richard of York
On 30 December 1460, the Yorkist and Lancastrian forces clashed at Sandal Castle, near Wakefield.
Richard of York, possibly deceived into thinking he faced a smaller enemy force, left the safety of the castle to engage in open battle.
He was killed in the battle, along with his second son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland, and his key ally, the Earl of Salisbury.
The Battle of Wakefield was a catastrophic blow to the Yorkist cause. Richard's head was placed on the gates of York, mockingly crowned with paper. However, this brutal spectacle backfired politically, martyring York and galvanising support around his son, Edward, Earl of March.
Edward’s Rise: Victory at Mortimer’s Cross (1461)
Edward swiftly assumed leadership and demonstrated remarkable military prowess. In February 1461, he intercepted Lancastrian forces at the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross, near Herefordshire.
Aided by an atmospheric phenomenon — a parhelion (three suns) — Edward claimed this was a divine sign of Yorkist favour.
His army decisively defeated Lancastrians led by Owen Tudor, who was captured and executed.
This victory not only enhanced Edward’s reputation but positioned him as the Yorkist figurehead.
Meanwhile, Queen Margaret and her army gained a Lancastrian victory at the Second Battle of St Albans (17 February 1461), briefly regaining custody of the king. However, they failed to capitalise, retreating north instead of seizing London.
Proclamation of Edward IV as King
With Margaret’s failure to take the capital and Henry VI in Lancastrian hands, the Yorkists responded with political boldness.
On 4 March 1461, Edward was proclaimed King Edward IV in London, with the support of Warwick and the London elite.
Although Henry VI was still alive, this act constituted a full Yorkist claim to the throne, justified by the illegitimacy and ineffectiveness of Lancastrian rule.
This moment formalised the civil war as a dynastic struggle, moving beyond mere factional disputes and making military resolution inevitable.
The Battle of Towton (1461): The Bloodiest Battle on English Soil
The decisive confrontation came at the Battle of Towton, fought on 29 March 1461, near Tadcaster in Yorkshire.
Context and Scale
The battle was preceded by skirmishes at Ferrybridge, where Yorkist forces clashed with a rearguard.
Towton was fought under harsh weather conditions, with blizzards and snow, and was the largest and bloodiest battle of the Wars of the Roses.
Military Strategy and Combat
Edward IV led the Yorkist forces, joined by Warwick and Lord Fauconberg.
Yorkists initially used wind-assisted archery to gain the upper hand.
The battle devolved into brutal hand-to-hand combat lasting for hours, with significant casualties on both sides.
Outcome and Consequences
A decisive Yorkist victory, as the Lancastrians broke and fled. Many were cut down in the rout, with some drowning in the River Cock.
Estimates suggest 28,000–30,000 men were killed, a staggering toll for the period.
This overwhelming victory secured Edward’s hold on the throne, forcing Margaret and Henry to flee to Scotland.
Edward entered York triumphantly and began consolidating his reign, crowned officially in June 1461. The Battle of Towton solidified the Yorkist regime, marking the high point of Edward’s early kingship and the effective end of Lancastrian resistance — at least temporarily.
Significance of Edward IV’s Ascendancy
Edward’s rise was notable for several reasons:
He was the first English king to take the crown by right of conquest since the Norman Conquest.
His victories and military leadership contrasted starkly with Henry VI’s weakness.
At just 18 years old, Edward presented a youthful, energetic image of kingship that appealed to war-weary nobles and commoners alike.
While the Wars of the Roses would continue intermittently, Edward IV’s accession marked a significant shift in power and the beginning of a new Yorkist era in English history.
FAQ
Warwick played a central role in orchestrating the Yorkist resurgence and paving the way for Edward IV’s accession. As Captain of Calais, he held a strategically vital position and used it to maintain a secure base during Yorkist exile. He leveraged this power to raid Lancastrian shipping in the Channel, projecting strength and asserting legitimacy. In 1460, Warwick co-led the successful invasion of England and the victory at the Battle of Northampton, resulting in the capture of Henry VI. He also negotiated with key political actors in London, securing broad support for the Yorkist cause. After Richard of York’s death, Warwick threw his weight behind Edward, managing diplomatic relationships and leading military campaigns. He helped secure Edward’s proclamation as king in March 1461 and fought alongside him at Towton. Warwick’s military command, political manoeuvring, and control over Calais were instrumental in establishing the Yorkist regime and ensuring its survival during a critical period of instability.
Margaret of Anjou’s victory at the Second Battle of St Albans on 17 February 1461 briefly restored Lancastrian control over King Henry VI, but she failed to seize the initiative thereafter. Despite reclaiming the king, her forces did not march on London—a critical strategic error. Several factors contributed to this hesitation. First, her army, comprised largely of northern troops, was viewed with suspicion and fear by Londoners due to reports of pillaging. The city refused her entry, wary of further unrest. Second, logistical challenges—lack of supplies, harsh winter conditions, and war-weariness—made sustained campaigning difficult. Third, Margaret may have been concerned about the strength of the Yorkist forces regrouping in the south. Her decision to retreat north allowed Edward and Warwick to enter London unopposed and have Edward proclaimed king. This indecisiveness undermined the Lancastrian advantage gained at St Albans and permitted the Yorkists to recover and prepare for the decisive Battle of Towton.
Public opinion in London played a significant role in legitimising Edward IV’s claim to the throne in 1461. The city was politically and economically powerful, and its support offered crucial financial and logistical advantages. After years of civil conflict and ineffective rule under Henry VI, Londoners grew increasingly disillusioned with Lancastrian leadership, especially given Margaret of Anjou’s northern army’s reputation for disorder and plundering. When her troops approached the city following the Second Battle of St Albans, London’s authorities barred their entry, fearing widespread violence and looting. In contrast, Edward, seen as a symbol of strong leadership and Yorkist stability, was welcomed. Warwick's diplomatic efforts and promises of law and order further won over city officials and merchants. The guilds and civic elite viewed Edward as better suited to restore trade and internal peace. Their endorsement allowed Edward to be proclaimed king with symbolic and practical backing, strengthening the Yorkist regime from its inception.
The Act of Accord, passed in October 1460, was a landmark but ultimately short-lived attempt to resolve the dynastic crisis. It legally recognised Richard, Duke of York, and his heirs as successors to Henry VI, bypassing Prince Edward, the king’s son. This unprecedented move was intended as a compromise to avoid outright conflict. Its significance lay in Parliament’s intervention in royal succession, challenging the principle of hereditary right. However, it alienated staunch Lancastrians, especially Queen Margaret of Anjou, who refused to accept the disinheritance of her son. The Act’s imposition deepened existing divisions and intensified factionalism. Rather than stabilising the realm, it hastened civil war. Margaret immediately began rallying forces in the north, and York’s subsequent military campaign to enforce the settlement ended in disaster at Wakefield. The Act of Accord thus failed to establish a durable solution and instead provoked the final, most violent phase of conflict, leading directly to Edward IV’s eventual accession.
Richard of York’s death at the Battle of Wakefield was a severe blow to Yorkist morale, but it did not lead to the collapse of the movement. Instead, it triggered a swift and highly effective leadership transition. His son, Edward, Earl of March, assumed command and quickly proved himself a capable military commander and charismatic figurehead. The brutal circumstances of York’s death—especially the mutilation and display of his body—were used to rally Yorkist sympathisers and generate outrage against the Lancastrians. The faction maintained cohesion largely due to existing alliances, particularly with Warwick and Salisbury, and because the Yorkist cause had broadened into a dynastic crusade rather than a personal campaign. Edward’s victories at Mortimer’s Cross and Towton confirmed his capability and legitimised his leadership. The Yorkist faction, rather than fragmenting, became more unified under Edward, who offered a fresh image of decisive kingship that contrasted favourably with Henry VI’s weakness and vacillation.
Practice Questions
Explain the significance of the Battle of Towton in Edward IV’s rise to power.
The Battle of Towton was pivotal in Edward IV’s successful claim to the throne. As the bloodiest battle of the Wars of the Roses, its scale and outcome decisively crushed Lancastrian resistance. Edward’s victory eliminated major opposition and forced Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou into exile. It demonstrated Edward’s military capability and leadership, bolstering his legitimacy. The battle’s location in Yorkshire also helped him secure control of the north. Without Towton, Edward’s position would have remained precarious. His subsequent coronation in June 1461 confirmed him as king and ended Lancastrian dominance, at least temporarily.
Why did the Yorkist cause survive the death of Richard of York in 1460?
Despite Richard of York’s death at Wakefield, the Yorkist cause endured due to the immediate and capable leadership of his son, Edward, Earl of March. Edward’s decisive victory at Mortimer’s Cross proved his military skill and rallied Yorkist supporters. Furthermore, the brutal display of York’s severed head alienated moderates, driving support towards Edward. The political groundwork laid by York, including the Act of Accord, also ensured a basis for Edward’s claim. Edward’s charisma, youth, and political backing—especially from Warwick—meant the Yorkist momentum did not falter, culminating in Edward being proclaimed king in March 1461.
