The Protectorate marked England's experiment with a non-monarchical government led by Oliver Cromwell, blending military rule, Puritan ideals, and political reform.
Cromwell’s Character, Military Leadership and Religious Convictions
Cromwell’s Character
Oliver Cromwell was a deeply complex and often contradictory figure:
Born in 1599, he rose from the gentry class with modest beginnings and experienced a personal religious conversion in the 1630s, which defined much of his later outlook.
His personality blended humility with a strong sense of divine mission. While often modest in speech, Cromwell was also unyielding in belief, seeing himself as an instrument of God’s will.
He was pragmatic, willing to compromise politically when necessary, but also idealistic, especially in religious matters.
Military Leadership
Cromwell’s military record significantly bolstered his political influence:
He gained fame as a commander of cavalry during the English Civil Wars, especially through the creation and leadership of the Ironsides, known for their discipline and religious zeal.
As a general in the New Model Army, he played decisive roles in victories at Marston Moor (1644) and Naseby (1645).
His military strategy was characterised by mobility, decisiveness, and moral conviction.
After the wars, Cromwell led campaigns in Ireland (1649–1650) and Scotland (1650–1651), brutally suppressing resistance and strengthening the authority of the new regime.
Religious Convictions
Cromwell’s Puritanism shaped both his policies and his personal conduct:
He viewed the Civil Wars and subsequent Republic as a divine intervention to reform and purify the nation.
He supported a broad but controlled Protestant toleration, protecting many sects such as Baptists and Independents.
However, he was firmly opposed to Catholicism, particularly in Ireland, where his military actions took on the tone of a religious crusade.
Cromwell often expressed the belief that England was a “chosen nation”, and he was duty-bound to guide it on a godly path.
The Structure of the Protectorate: Instrument of Government and Parliament
The Instrument of Government (1653)
England’s first and only written constitution, the Instrument was drawn up by army officers, especially John Lambert.
It established a Lord Protector (Cromwell), a Council of State, and a single-chamber Parliament.
The Lord Protector held executive power, but Parliament had to be summoned every three years and sit for at least five months.
The government was intended to balance executive stability with parliamentary accountability, a revolutionary concept for the time.
Role of Parliament
The First Protectorate Parliament (1654–1655) included many moderate members, but relations quickly soured due to:
Disagreements over the extent of toleration.
Parliament’s refusal to accept the Instrument as the basis of government.
Challenges to the authority of the Council of State.
Cromwell dissolved this Parliament early, disappointed by its failure to support reform.
The Second Protectorate Parliament (1656–1658) was more cooperative and passed important measures, including the Humble Petition and Advice (discussed below), but still struggled with Cromwell’s need for strong executive control.
Cromwell’s Refusal of the Crown
The Humble Petition and Advice (1657)
This new constitutional proposal invited Cromwell to become King in order to provide greater stability.
It came from conservative MPs and army officers who believed a monarchy offered legitimacy and constitutional clarity.
The petition would have created a hereditary monarchy, a second chamber, and more structured government.
Cromwell’s Refusal
Cromwell refused the crown despite considerable pressure:
He feared alienating the army, many of whom had fought explicitly against monarchy.
He was concerned about going against God’s will, believing monarchy might undermine the divine purpose of the Protectorate.
Instead, he accepted the revised version of the Humble Petition, remaining as Lord Protector, but gaining new powers and the right to nominate his successor.
Implications
Cromwell’s refusal prevented the restoration of monarchy under a new form.
However, it also weakened the constitutional settlement, maintaining ambiguity and reliance on Cromwell’s personal authority.
It reflected the continuing tension between republican ideals and the desire for stability.
The Role of the Major Generals
Introduction of the Major Generals
After a Royalist uprising (Penruddock’s Rising) in 1655, Cromwell imposed a new form of military rule.
England and Wales were divided into 11 districts, each controlled by a Major General—army officers reporting directly to Cromwell.
The system was funded through the Decimation Tax, levied on Royalists.
Governance and Enforcement of Morality
Major Generals were tasked with:
Enforcing Puritan moral standards (e.g. shutting down alehouses, banning bear-baiting and stage plays).
Suppressing Royalist activity and ensuring local compliance.
Promoting “godly reformation” in society.
The regime aimed to create a moral and disciplined society, governed by religious values.
Public Reaction
The Major Generals were widely unpopular:
Seen as heavy-handed and disconnected from local traditions.
Resented by both gentry and commoners alike for undermining traditional local governance.
Their religious zeal was often viewed as fanaticism.
Political backlash led to the abandonment of the system by 1657.
Religious Toleration and Suppression
Policy of Toleration
Cromwell aimed for liberty of conscience within Protestantism.
He allowed a wide range of Protestant sects to worship freely—Baptists, Independents, and even some Quakers.
He readmitted Jews to England in 1656, for the first time since their expulsion in 1290, partly motivated by a belief that this would hasten Christ’s return.
Limits of Toleration
Anglican practices were discouraged, and Anglican clergy were deprived of their livings.
Catholicism was actively suppressed, especially in Ireland.
Catholic priests were executed, and the Mass was banned.
Cromwell’s Irish campaign was notorious for atrocities, particularly at Drogheda and Wexford, framed as religious punishment.
Religious Policy in Practice
While the government’s stance was relatively progressive for the time, in practice:
Local officials often resisted implementing toleration.
Persecution of radical groups, such as Ranters and Fifth Monarchists, continued.
Religious policy remained one of the most contentious areas of the Protectorate.
Succession and the Rise of Richard Cromwell
Succession Issues
The Instrument of Government allowed for a nominated successor, but succession in a republican regime remained inherently unstable.
Cromwell’s health declined in the late 1650s, prompting concern about the future of the regime.
The lack of a clear line of authority increased tensions among Parliament, the army, and the Council.
Rise of Richard Cromwell
In 1658, Oliver Cromwell named his son Richard Cromwell as successor.
Richard lacked military experience, political skill, or the personal charisma of his father.
Although initially accepted as Lord Protector, Richard’s position quickly weakened:
He faced opposition from the army, which resented civilian control.
He lacked support from key political figures and was unable to balance competing factions.
Richard was forced to resign in 1659, and the Protectorate began to unravel.
Legacy of the Protectorate
Cromwell’s regime had tried to build a godly commonwealth, fusing military governance, religious reform, and constitutional experimentation.
Ultimately, however, the Protectorate relied too heavily on Cromwell’s personal leadership.
Without him, its political foundations crumbled, paving the way for the return of monarchy in 1660.
FAQ
Cromwell struggled to build lasting political alliances because of his unique political position and the contradictions within the Protectorate’s governing structure. As Lord Protector, he sought to bridge the gap between radical army officers and more conservative civilian politicians, but this proved difficult. Royalists viewed him as a regicidal usurper, while republicans criticised him for acting like a monarch. Many MPs resented the military’s dominant role and feared a return to absolutism in another guise. His religious toleration alienated Presbyterians and Anglicans, while his suppression of extreme sects disappointed radicals. Cromwell’s ambiguous position—neither monarch nor elected ruler—meant there was no traditional mechanism for securing loyalty, and many of his policies relied on personal relationships and charisma rather than institutional support. Additionally, his dismissal of parliaments that challenged his authority weakened trust and prevented long-term cooperation. The result was a fragmented political culture where no single alliance could provide stable governance.
Cromwell’s foreign policy aimed to promote Protestantism, protect trade interests, and assert England’s international status. He sought to present England as a godly Protestant power, forming alliances with Protestant states such as Sweden and the Dutch Republic. His religious convictions influenced his desire to oppose Catholic powers, particularly Spain. This led to the Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660), during which England captured Jamaica (1655), a strategically valuable and symbolically significant conquest that marked the beginning of Britain’s colonial expansion in the Caribbean. Cromwell also pursued commercial and naval power, shown through the improvement of the navy and protection of trade routes. The Treaty of Westminster (1654) with the Dutch ended the First Anglo-Dutch War and secured trade advantages. His foreign policy blended military ambition, economic pragmatism, and religious ideology, showing the Protectorate’s dual aims of strengthening England and promoting its role as a moral leader in European affairs.
The Council of State, restructured under the Instrument of Government, acted as the executive body advising the Lord Protector and overseeing daily administration. It consisted of 13 to 21 members, nominated jointly by the Protector and Parliament. Its responsibilities included managing the military, supervising foreign policy, overseeing financial matters, and implementing domestic legislation. However, its effectiveness was mixed. Cromwell often relied more on his personal advisors and the army hierarchy, sidelining the Council when it conflicted with his priorities. Furthermore, the shifting relationship between Cromwell, the army, and Parliament meant that the Council’s authority was never consistent. While intended as a check on the Protector’s power, it often functioned more as an instrument of his will. Nevertheless, it was a significant administrative development, representing an attempt to formalise executive governance without a monarch, and it laid groundwork for future debates about constitutional balance and ministerial responsibility.
Economic policy during the Protectorate was largely driven by the need for financial stability to maintain the army and government. The regime inherited severe debts from the Civil Wars and needed to secure revenue without resorting to unpopular or royalist-style taxation. Regular income was drawn from customs duties, excise taxes, and land assessments. Additionally, the Decimation Tax targeted Royalists, helping fund the Major Generals’ rule. Though it raised revenue, this tax was deeply resented and contributed to social unrest. Cromwell’s administration also promoted mercantilist policies to expand trade and increase wealth. Navigation Acts were enforced to limit foreign shipping in English ports, strengthening domestic commerce. Economic policy supported commercial expansion and colonial ventures, including the Western Design and the conquest of Jamaica. However, economic difficulties persisted, partly due to inconsistent parliamentary cooperation and resistance to centralised control. Thus, while some trade initiatives thrived, economic challenges remained a persistent feature of the Protectorate.
Cromwell’s relationship with the army was both his greatest strength and an enduring liability. The army had elevated him to power and remained his core base of support. Many officers shared his Puritan ideals and backed his vision for a godly commonwealth. However, once in power, Cromwell had to balance their radicalism with broader national stability. This created tensions. Some army leaders expected a more radical republic, including deeper social reforms and continued military governance. Cromwell, however, often chose pragmatic moderation, alienating parts of the army. The imposition of the Major Generals in 1655 was an effort to satisfy the army’s political role, but it generated widespread opposition and was eventually abandoned. Despite growing frustration, the army remained loyal due to Cromwell’s prestige and leadership. Yet the regime’s over-reliance on military backing undermined civilian authority and generated widespread fears of military dictatorship, destabilising efforts to build a sustainable political system.
Practice Questions
‘Cromwell’s religious beliefs were the most important factor in shaping the Protectorate, 1653–1658.’ Assess the validity of this view.
Cromwell’s religious convictions were central to the Protectorate, underpinning his vision of a godly commonwealth. His support for liberty of conscience, the role of Major Generals in moral reform, and toleration for Protestant sects reflected deep Puritan ideals. However, political necessity, military influence, and constitutional experimentation also significantly shaped the regime. The Instrument of Government and Cromwell’s rejection of the crown show pragmatic concerns about power balance and legitimacy. While religion influenced policy, it was interwoven with practical governance, suggesting that although highly significant, religious beliefs were not the sole or dominant factor in shaping the Protectorate.
To what extent was the Protectorate a failure by 1658?
By 1658, the Protectorate faced serious instability. Richard Cromwell’s rise exposed the regime’s reliance on Oliver Cromwell’s personal authority. Parliament remained fractious, the army resented civilian control, and the public rejected military rule under the Major Generals. However, there were notable achievements, including relative stability after years of war, expanded religious toleration, and innovative constitutional efforts like the Instrument of Government. Cromwell’s leadership prevented royalist resurgence and encouraged administrative reform. Thus, while the Protectorate ultimately collapsed, it was not wholly a failure—its shortcomings were largely due to unresolved tensions between ideological ambition and practical governance.
