The collapse of Robespierre’s rule in 1794 ended the radical phase of the French Revolution and paved the way for the moderate Directory regime.
The Thermidorian Reaction
Overthrow of Robespierre
The Thermidorian Reaction refers to the events of 9 Thermidor Year II (27 July 1794) when Maximilien Robespierre and his allies were arrested and executed. This coup was driven by members of the National Convention who feared Robespierre’s increasing power and the continuation of the Reign of Terror.
Motivations: Many deputies, fearing for their own safety and desiring an end to extreme policies, conspired against Robespierre.
Outcome: Robespierre, Saint-Just, and key supporters were executed by guillotine the following day, marking a dramatic shift in revolutionary politics.
Goals of the Reaction
The Thermidorians aimed to dismantle the machinery of Terror and to restore stability after years of political violence.
Key goals included:
Ending the Terror: The Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal were weakened, and harsh emergency measures were scaled back.
Restoring rule of law: Revolutionary laws such as the Law of 22 Prairial, which facilitated mass executions, were repealed.
Political moderation: Jacobin clubs were closed or suppressed to prevent a resurgence of radicalism.
Economic liberalisation: The government moved away from price controls and the forced requisitioning of grain.
The White Terror
Definition and Targets
The White Terror refers to a series of violent reprisals by conservative and royalist groups against former Jacobins and supporters of the Terror between 1794 and 1795.
Who was targeted?
Former members of local revolutionary committees.
Sans-culottes and militants associated with the radical Jacobin faction.
Prominent figures who had benefitted from the Terror.
Nature and Extent of Violence
The White Terror was not centrally organised but consisted of widespread local attacks.
In the provinces, especially in the Rhône valley and the south, gangs known as Compagnies de Jésus or Compagnies du Soleil hunted down and murdered ex-Terrorists.
Vigilante justice: Many were killed without trial; houses were looted and property destroyed.
Scale: Although not as deadly as the Reign of Terror, the violence created an atmosphere of fear and retaliation.
Political Impact
The White Terror highlighted deep societal divisions and discredited both extremes of the political spectrum.
Undermined Jacobin influence: The fear of reprisals further weakened radical clubs and discouraged militant activities.
Empowered conservatives: Royalists and moderates gained greater confidence, pushing France further away from radical republicanism.
Destabilising factor: Despite aiming to restore order, the White Terror bred cycles of revenge and vigilantism, undermining national unity.
The Parisian Risings of 1795
The Rising of 1 Prairial Year III (20 May 1795)
Background: Economic hardship, food shortages, and anger over the Thermidorian government’s policies caused unrest among Parisian sans-culottes.
Demands: Insurgents called for the Constitution of 1793 to be enacted, better food supplies, and a return to radical social measures.
Events: Crowds stormed the National Convention, murdering deputy Jean-Bertrand Féraud.
Suppression: The Convention mustered loyal National Guard forces. After brief street fighting, leaders were arrested; 42 were executed and thousands imprisoned or deported.
Significance:
Marked the final major insurrection by the sans-culottes.
Demonstrated the government’s regained control over Paris.
The Rising of 13 Vendémiaire Year IV (5 October 1795)
Background: As royalist sentiment resurged, discontented Parisians and royalists attempted to overthrow the Convention.
Royalist threat: About 25,000 armed royalists gathered in Paris to seize power.
Government response: General Napoleon Bonaparte, then a young artillery officer, was given command of the defence.
‘Whiff of grapeshot’: Bonaparte’s decisive use of artillery on the crowds scattered the insurgents with heavy casualties.
Impact:
Cemented Napoleon’s reputation as a capable military commander.
Proved the Convention’s determination to crush threats from both the left and right.
Cleared the way for the new Constitution and the establishment of the Directory.
Weakening of Radicalism and the Rise of the Directory
Erosion of Sans-Culotte Influence
Following repeated defeats and executions, the sans-culottes, once the engine of radical revolutionary action, were politically and militarily crushed.
Economic liberalism: Removal of price controls worsened conditions for urban workers but benefited the emerging bourgeoisie.
Closing Jacobin clubs: These were centres of radical organisation; their suppression reduced the capacity for popular mobilisation.
Political Shifts and Moderation
The political landscape shifted sharply towards the centre and right.
Thermidorian Convention: Dominated by moderates, aiming to balance order with the ideals of 1789, not the extremes of the Terror.
Royalist and émigré return: Many nobles and clergy returned, hoping to restore the monarchy, but were constrained by new political structures.
Constitution of Year III
To secure the revolution from both Jacobin radicalism and royalist restoration, the Thermidorians drafted a new constitution.
Key features:
Separation of powers: A bicameral legislature (Council of Five Hundred and Council of Ancients) to prevent dictatorship.
Executive power: Vested in a five-man Directory to avoid concentration of authority.
Electoral limitations: Property requirements for voting ensured moderate, propertied interests dominated.
Conditions Allowing the Directory to Emerge
Desire for stability: After years of upheaval, the French population and political class yearned for predictable governance and economic recovery.
Fear of extremes: Memories of the Terror and the White Terror made both radical republicanism and royalist reaction seem dangerous.
Strong army: The military, loyal to the republic and increasingly influential, guaranteed that violent insurrection would be suppressed.
Summary of enabling factors:
The collapse of radical Jacobin power and repression of sans-culottes.
Political exhaustion and swing to moderation.
The military’s pivotal role in maintaining order.
Institutional design meant to guard against dictatorship and mob rule alike.
Through these developments, France transitioned from revolutionary terror to a fragile republican regime, setting the stage for the rise of ambitious figures like Napoleon Bonaparte. The Directory, born of Thermidorian compromises and military support, would govern until 1799, when it too fell to a more forceful authority.
FAQ
The Thermidorian Reaction significantly reformed France’s revolutionary legal system, dismantling many of the institutions and laws that had enabled the Reign of Terror. The feared Revolutionary Tribunal, responsible for mass executions, was drastically limited in power and scope before being abolished entirely by May 1795. Key laws like the Law of 22 Prairial, which had simplified the judicial process to expedite executions with minimal evidence, were repealed, restoring principles of fair trial and legal defence. Judges once appointed for their political loyalty under the Terror were replaced with legal professionals, reintroducing more traditional judicial norms. Furthermore, local revolutionary committees, which had acted as enforcers of revolutionary justice and surveillance, were dissolved. Censorship and restrictions on freedom of speech were relaxed compared to the Terror’s peak, allowing freer political discourse. Collectively, these changes re-established civil legal rights and reduced the government’s direct coercive reach over citizens, laying groundwork for a more conventional republican legal system under the Directory.
Following Robespierre’s execution, the Thermidorians shifted France’s economic policies towards liberalisation, moving away from the rigid controls that had characterised the radical phase. The Maximum, a set of price controls on food and essential goods, was repealed in December 1794, which led to soaring prices and rampant inflation but favoured the bourgeoisie and agricultural producers. Grain requisitioning by government agents ended, resulting in less interference in the rural economy and incentivising private trade. However, this caused severe food shortages in urban areas, worsening the plight of the sans-culottes and fuelling discontent that led to the risings of 1795. The assignat currency rapidly depreciated in value, losing public trust and prompting hoarding. The Thermidorians failed to replace it with a stable alternative, deepening economic instability. Ultimately, while intended to restore market freedom and revive confidence among merchants and landowners, these economic shifts created new social tensions that undermined urban support for the revolutionary government.
The Thermidorian Reaction marked a turning point for freedom of the press and political expression in revolutionary France. Under the Terror, censorship had been severe, with radical Jacobin leaders tightly controlling pamphlets, newspapers, and public speech to suppress dissent. After Robespierre’s fall, the Thermidorians relaxed these controls, leading to a brief flourishing of political publications and newspapers representing various viewpoints, from royalist to moderate republican. Many political clubs, especially those opposing the Jacobins, reopened, and a vibrant pamphlet culture re-emerged in Paris. Satirical prints and articles mocked the excesses of the Terror, contributing to the widespread discrediting of radicalism. However, this newfound freedom also allowed royalist and reactionary ideas to spread, alarming republicans who feared a Bourbon restoration. To counter growing royalist propaganda, the Directory later reinstated censorship selectively and closed down publications it deemed threatening to public order. In essence, Thermidorian liberalisation expanded freedom of speech but created challenges in balancing openness with political stability.
After the Thermidorian Reaction, the army became an increasingly crucial tool for maintaining domestic order and protecting the government from both radical and royalist threats. During the Parisian risings of 1795, it was the National Guard and the regular army that suppressed insurrections which the weakened revolutionary police apparatus could no longer control alone. The decisive role played by officers like Napoleon Bonaparte during the 13 Vendémiaire uprising showcased how military force, rather than popular mobilisation, had become the regime’s backbone. The Thermidorians relied on the army not just for external defence but also as a guarantee against coup attempts and civil unrest. Garrison troops in major cities deterred urban revolts, and military courts were sometimes used to try insurrectionists swiftly. This dependence foreshadowed the rise of military figures in politics, eroding civilian supremacy. By the time the Directory was established, military leaders had significant political leverage, paving the way for Napoleon’s eventual seizure of power through the Brumaire Coup.
Public attitudes towards revolutionary ideals underwent a marked shift during the Thermidorian Reaction. Years of radical policies, economic hardship, and the fear generated by the Terror had worn down popular enthusiasm for radical egalitarianism. After Robespierre’s fall, many citizens, especially in the provinces and among the urban middle classes, turned against the Jacobin brand of republicanism, associating it with tyranny and economic chaos. The moderate republican values of 1789—constitutional government, civil liberties, and property rights—regained appeal, while radical calls for economic equality and direct democracy lost traction. In Paris, the disillusionment of the sans-culottes with the government’s abandonment of price controls and social measures weakened their political fervour. Meanwhile, royalist nostalgia grew stronger among conservatives and those who longed for traditional stability and order. Overall, the Thermidorian era fostered political apathy in some quarters, a reactionary longing for pre-revolutionary structures in others, and a general wariness of extremism, setting the ideological climate in which the Directory would attempt to govern.
Practice Questions
Explain the aims of the Thermidorian Reaction and how they were achieved.
The Thermidorian Reaction sought to end the excesses of the Terror, dismantle radical institutions, and restore political and social stability. This was achieved by curbing the power of the Committee of Public Safety, repealing oppressive laws like the Law of 22 Prairial, and closing Jacobin clubs. Economic liberalisation replaced price controls, benefitting the middle classes but worsening conditions for the poor. Overall, the Thermidorians reversed the radical phase, weakened sans-culotte influence, and laid the foundations for a moderate republican government, paving the way for the Directory’s establishment through the Constitution of Year III.
Assess the significance of the Parisian risings of 1795 in weakening radicalism.
The Parisian risings of 1 Prairial and 13 Vendémiaire 1795 were critical in crushing the remaining strength of radical forces in Paris. The suppression of 1 Prairial ended the political power of the sans-culottes, while 13 Vendémiaire demonstrated the military’s loyalty to the Convention. Napoleon Bonaparte’s decisive action during Vendémiaire further cemented government authority. These risings showed that armed insurrection would no longer influence politics, discrediting radicalism and enabling the Thermidorians to establish the Directory. Consequently, they were pivotal moments ensuring the survival of moderate republicanism and preventing the return of Jacobin dominance.
