The period 1916–1922 was pivotal in shaping modern Ireland and its relationship with Britain, marked by revolution, conflict, and a contentious treaty.
The Easter Rising, 1916
Causes of the Rising
The Easter Rising was rooted in deep-seated Irish nationalism and disillusionment with British rule:
Home Rule Delays: The Third Home Rule Bill of 1912 promised self-government, but its implementation was suspended due to the outbreak of the First World War.
Nationalist Militancy: Groups like the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) and the Irish Volunteers believed armed revolt was the only route to full independence.
Cultural Revival: A resurgence in Irish culture and identity fuelled nationalist sentiment.
War Opportunity: Britain’s preoccupation with the war presented what radicals saw as an ideal moment to strike.
Events of the Rising
On 24 April 1916 (Easter Monday), around 1,200 rebels seized key locations in Dublin, including the General Post Office (GPO).
Leaders such as Patrick Pearse, James Connolly, and Tom Clarke declared an Irish Republic.
The Rising lacked popular support; many Dubliners were shocked by the violence and disruption.
After a week of street fighting, with significant destruction to the city centre, the rebels surrendered on 29 April 1916.
The British Response
The British reacted swiftly and forcefully, deploying over 16,000 troops to quash the insurrection.
Around 450 people were killed and over 2,600 wounded, many of them civilians.
The British authorities executed 15 leaders, including Pearse and Connolly, between 3–12 May 1916.
Initially, public opinion in Ireland was hostile towards the rebels, but the harsh reprisals transformed many into martyrs, fuelling sympathy for republicanism.
The Irish War of Independence, 1919–1921
Origins and Context
In 1918, the Sinn Féin party, which adopted an abstentionist policy towards Westminster, won a landslide in Ireland’s general election.
In January 1919, Sinn Féin MPs convened as the First Dáil Éireann, proclaiming Irish independence.
On the same day, an attack at Soloheadbeg marked the start of the guerrilla war.
Major Events and Strategies
IRA Tactics
The Irish Republican Army (IRA), evolved from the Irish Volunteers, waged a guerrilla campaign:
Ambushes, sabotage, and targeted assassinations of police and military.
Intelligence networks under Michael Collins effectively infiltrated British operations.
The IRA’s strength lay in its mobility and support from local populations.
British Counter-Measures
The British government responded with Black and Tans and the Auxiliary Division, notorious for reprisals and brutal counter-insurgency.
Martial law and curfews were imposed in several counties.
Acts of terror, such as the Burning of Cork and the Bloody Sunday massacre in November 1920, deepened Irish animosity towards Britain.
Key Figures
Michael Collins: Director of Intelligence for the IRA; masterminded espionage and hit squads.
Éamon de Valera: Political leader and President of the Dáil.
David Lloyd George: British Prime Minister determined to maintain British authority but ultimately negotiated a settlement.
Escalation and Truce
By 1921, the conflict reached a stalemate; the IRA faced shortages of weapons and exhaustion, while British forces could not decisively crush the insurgency.
International criticism and domestic pressure in Britain for a settlement grew.
A truce was agreed on 11 July 1921, paving the way for negotiations.
The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 1921
Negotiations
Peace talks commenced in October 1921, involving British representatives and an Irish delegation led by Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins.
De Valera did not attend, a choice that would later become politically significant.
Key Terms of the Treaty
Irish Free State: Ireland would become a self-governing dominion within the British Empire, similar to Canada.
Oath of Allegiance: Irish parliamentarians would swear an oath to the British Crown.
Partition: The six counties of Northern Ireland could opt out of the Free State — which they promptly did, remaining part of the UK.
Defence and Ports: Britain retained certain naval bases (known as the Treaty Ports) for strategic reasons.
Division of Ireland
The Treaty formalised the partition already effectively established by the Government of Ireland Act 1920.
This created:
Northern Ireland: Majority unionist, stayed in the UK.
Irish Free State: Predominantly nationalist, enjoyed self-governance.
Political Implications
In Ireland
The Treaty caused a bitter split within the nationalist movement:
Pro-Treaty: Led by Collins and Griffith, argued it provided "the freedom to achieve freedom".
Anti-Treaty: Led by De Valera and others, rejected any allegiance to the Crown and the partition.
This division ignited the Irish Civil War (1922–1923), a conflict beyond the scope of this subsubtopic but crucial in Irish history.
For Britain
The Treaty ended direct British military engagement in southern Ireland but did not resolve sectarian divisions in Northern Ireland.
It marked a significant retreat of British power, signalling a shift in the Empire's approach to nationalist demands.
Lloyd George presented it as a pragmatic solution to a costly and increasingly unpopular conflict.
Legacy of the Period
Between 1916 and 1922, Ireland transformed from a colony seeking Home Rule to an independent dominion with significant self-government. The Easter Rising, War of Independence, and the Anglo-Irish Treaty were milestones that reshaped Irish identity and Anglo-Irish relations, laying the groundwork for the Republic of Ireland’s later full independence and the complex politics of Northern Ireland.
FAQ
Women played a crucial but often underrepresented role in the Irish revolutionary period. During the Easter Rising, members of Cumann na mBan, the women’s auxiliary to the Irish Volunteers, acted as couriers, nurses, and in some cases combatants, with figures like Constance Markievicz becoming iconic. Markievicz was a commander at St Stephen’s Green and later became the first woman elected to the British Parliament (although she did not take her seat). Throughout the War of Independence, women provided essential support as couriers, intelligence gatherers, and safe-house keepers, enabling the IRA’s clandestine operations to succeed despite British surveillance. Women also participated in the Dáil Courts system, acting as judges and clerks when the parallel legal system challenged British authority. Their involvement was instrumental in maintaining communication, morale, and community support for the republican cause. However, despite their contributions, women were sidelined in formal politics after the Treaty, reflecting wider patriarchal norms of the era.
International opinion, particularly from the United States, had a significant influence on the Irish independence movement. Irish-American communities organised fundraising, lobbying, and propaganda campaigns that brought global attention to British actions in Ireland. Éamon de Valera capitalised on this by visiting America from 1919 to 1920, raising millions through ‘bond drives’ to fund the Dáil and the IRA’s activities. American newspapers widely reported British reprisals and martial law, generating sympathy for the Irish cause. The Irish-American lobby pressured President Woodrow Wilson to raise the issue at the post-World War I peace negotiations, although Wilson ultimately prioritised stable relations with Britain. Additionally, global condemnation of incidents like the Bloody Sunday massacre in Dublin in 1920 damaged Britain’s moral standing, especially in a period when it portrayed itself as a defender of democracy. This growing international pressure pushed British politicians to seek a negotiated settlement, contributing indirectly to the decision to offer the 1921 Treaty.
British politics and public opinion were pivotal in shaping the government’s approach to the Irish conflict. After the Easter Rising, initial British consensus supported firm repression, but the brutal executions turned some in Britain against harsh measures. During the War of Independence, the government of David Lloyd George faced mounting criticism in Parliament and the press over the excesses of the Black and Tans and Auxiliaries, whose reprisals undermined Britain’s image at home and abroad. The costs of policing and military operations strained post-war finances, already burdened by debt and reconstruction. Public fatigue with conflict, combined with economic pressures and unrest in other parts of the Empire, made a peaceful solution more attractive. Political opponents, including Labour and Liberal backbenchers, increasingly criticised the government's failure to resolve the situation diplomatically. By 1921, the coalition government concluded that a negotiated compromise, even at the cost of partial Irish independence, was preferable to continued violence and international condemnation.
The Irish revolutionary period entrenched the partition of the island, shaping Northern Ireland’s political and social landscape for decades. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 established Northern Ireland as a separate entity with its own devolved parliament in Belfast, dominated by unionists who wished to remain within the United Kingdom. The revolutionary violence intensified sectarian divisions; Protestant communities feared nationalist rebellion, while Catholics often faced discrimination and exclusion from political power and employment. The Irish War of Independence saw sporadic violence in the north, including pogroms against Catholic neighbourhoods in Belfast. After the Treaty, Northern Ireland opted out of the Irish Free State as permitted under the settlement, solidifying its union with Britain. The new state developed a security apparatus aimed at suppressing republican activity, leading to a heavily policed and polarised society. This legacy of mistrust, discrimination, and contested identity laid the foundations for later conflict, culminating in the Troubles of the late 20th century.
The IRA’s success in the War of Independence stemmed from its flexible and decentralised organisation. Local units, or ‘flying columns’, operated independently, conducting ambushes and raids, then dispersing to avoid capture. This mobility frustrated British forces, who struggled to confront a conventional enemy. Michael Collins, as Director of Intelligence, established an effective spy network that penetrated the Dublin Castle administration and identified informers and collaborators for elimination by ‘The Squad’, an assassination unit. Funding came from national collections, local levies, and significant contributions from Irish-Americans. The IRA relied on widespread rural support for shelter, supplies, and information; communities often hid weapons and provided safe houses, complicating British counter-insurgency efforts. They also used propaganda to maintain morale and undermine British authority, portraying themselves as legitimate defenders of the Irish Republic. Despite facing superior military resources, the IRA’s combination of local knowledge, popular backing, and disciplined guerrilla tactics forced Britain to negotiate, demonstrating the effectiveness of asymmetric warfare against a colonial power.
Practice Questions
Explain the significance of the Easter Rising for Anglo-Irish relations between 1916 and 1922.
The Easter Rising was significant as it transformed Irish public opinion, turning initial hostility into widespread sympathy for republicanism due to the British execution of its leaders. This event undermined moderate constitutional nationalism and boosted support for Sinn Féin, which dominated the 1918 election. The Rising’s legacy inspired the IRA’s guerrilla tactics during the War of Independence, forcing Britain to negotiate. The British response highlighted the limitations of coercion and the need for compromise, culminating in the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which formalised partition and reshaped Britain’s imperial policy towards Ireland.
Assess the impact of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 on Ireland and Britain.
The Anglo-Irish Treaty created the Irish Free State, granting dominion status and effectively ending the War of Independence but at the cost of partition. For Ireland, it caused a deep political rift between pro- and anti-Treaty factions, sparking a civil war that shaped its future politics. Northern Ireland’s continued union with Britain entrenched sectarian divisions. For Britain, the Treaty ended a costly conflict but signalled retreat from direct rule, influencing its approach to empire and dominion status elsewhere. It stabilised relations in the short term but left unresolved tensions that persisted throughout the twentieth century.
