Henry VII’s foreign policy, societal structure, and economic strategy laid the foundations for Tudor stability and royal authority following decades of dynastic conflict.
Henry’s Diplomatic Strategy
Marriage Alliances
Henry VII used dynastic marriage to solidify alliances and legitimatise his rule. The most notable example is:
Arthur and Catherine of Aragon: The 1501 marriage between Prince Arthur, Henry’s eldest son, and Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, forged an alliance with Spain, then emerging as a major European power. This alliance was designed to isolate France, England’s traditional rival.
Although Arthur’s death in 1502 weakened this bond, negotiations began for Catherine to marry Henry, Duke of York (later Henry VIII), culminating in their marriage in 1509.
Other marriage negotiations also served diplomatic purposes:
A potential match between Princess Margaret and James IV of Scotland was pursued to ease Anglo-Scottish tensions, eventually realised under Henry VIII in 1503.
Negotiations for alliances through marriage were a cornerstone of Henry’s peace-oriented strategy.
Key Treaties
Henry preferred negotiation over warfare, seeking security through diplomacy:
Treaty of Medina del Campo (1489):
Mutual support agreement with Spain against France.
Promised marriage between Arthur and Catherine.
Ensured fair trade terms for English merchants in Spain.
Treaty of Étaples (1492):
Henry’s short invasion of France led to this treaty.
France agreed to pay £5,000 per annum in a pension to Henry.
Charles VIII promised not to support Perkin Warbeck, a pretender to the English throne.
Treaty of Perpetual Peace with Scotland (1502):
Secured the marriage of Princess Margaret to James IV.
Provided peace on the northern border, though long-term peace was only partly realised.
Henry’s diplomatic policy was cautious, pragmatic, and geared toward internal stability rather than foreign conquest.
Relations with Key European Powers
France
Traditionally hostile, France posed a significant early threat.
Henry’s invasion in 1492 was limited and timed for maximum leverage.
The Treaty of Étaples successfully curtailed French support for Yorkist pretenders, while financially benefitting England.
Scotland
Supported Warbeck in the 1490s, creating tensions.
Relations improved with the Treaty of Ayton (1497) after Warbeck’s defeat.
Strengthened by the proposed marriage of Margaret Tudor and James IV.
Burgundy
Centre of Yorkist opposition under Margaret of Burgundy, sister to Edward IV and Richard III.
Supported pretenders like Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck.
Henry responded with trade embargoes (1493–96), showing readiness to prioritise political stability over economic gain.
Intercursus Magnus (1496) restored favourable trade terms once Burgundy ceased support for Warbeck.
Spain
A crucial alliance through Medina del Campo and the Tudor–Trastámara marriage.
Henry aligned with Spain and the Habsburgs against France.
After Isabella of Castile’s death (1504), succession disputes in Spain complicated Anglo-Spanish relations.
Holy Roman Empire
Henry cautiously cultivated ties with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.
Relations were strained by Maximilian’s support for Yorkist claimants.
Economic interests and shared opposition to France often encouraged diplomatic cooperation.
Succession Planning and Dynastic Challenges
Death of Prince Arthur (1502)
A profound blow to Henry’s dynastic hopes.
Left Henry, Duke of York as the only surviving male heir.
Renewed negotiations for Catherine to marry the younger Henry were lengthy and politically sensitive.
Death of Elizabeth of York (1503)
Undermined dynastic unity and Henry’s legitimacy, as she linked the Tudors to the Yorkist line.
Henry considered remarriage (e.g. to Margaret of Savoy or Joanna of Naples) but none came to fruition.
Increased urgency to secure the Tudor succession, leading to political uncertainty near the end of Henry’s reign.
English Society under Henry VII
Hierarchical Structure
English society remained deeply stratified but relatively stable:
Churchmen: Held spiritual and secular power. Senior clergy, such as bishops, were often key political advisers.
Nobility: Few in number due to civil war losses. Henry sought to control them through bonds, recognisances, and restrictions on retaining (private armies).
Gentry: Grew in importance; administered local justice and collected taxes. Served as JPs (Justices of the Peace).
Commoners:
Yeomen and husbandmen formed a growing middle layer of prosperous farmers.
Urban artisans and merchants grew in wealth and influence.
Labourers and the poor faced precarious living conditions, with seasonal employment and food prices affecting livelihood.
Role of the Church
A unifying force across social divisions.
Provided social welfare, education, and moral guidance.
Loyalty to the Church helped reinforce loyalty to the monarch, who was seen as divinely appointed.
Regional Divisions and Rebellions
Yorkshire Rebellion (1489)
Triggered by a tax to support England’s intervention in Brittany.
Earl of Northumberland was murdered by rebels.
Rebellion suppressed, but highlighted northern discontent and Henry’s tenuous control in the region.
Cornish Rebellion (1497)
Reaction to taxation for Scottish campaign.
Marched from Cornwall to London; reached Blackheath.
Led by Michael An Gof and Thomas Flamank.
Though poorly organised, it revealed deep-rooted regional resentment, particularly over taxation for foreign wars with little local relevance.
Henry defeated the rebels decisively, using his own army rather than relying on potentially unreliable nobles.
Henry VII's reign thus demonstrated the challenges of integrating a fragmented realm, while preserving the loyalty of politically and culturally distinct regions.
Trade, Economy and Exploration
Trade Policies
Henry encouraged merchant shipping and the wool trade, particularly with Burgundy and Spain.
Navigation Acts (1485, 1489) aimed to boost English shipping by requiring English vessels and crews for certain imports.
Henry supported the Merchant Adventurers, giving them a quasi-monopoly on trade with the Netherlands.
The Intercursus Magnus (1496) and the less successful Intercursus Malus (1506) regulated Anglo-Burgundian trade.
Limited Exploration
England lagged behind Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration.
Sponsored John Cabot (1497) to explore new trade routes:
Cabot reached Newfoundland, laying the basis for later English claims in the New World.
Sebastian Cabot, his son, attempted further expeditions under Henry VIII.
Despite these efforts, exploration remained a minor part of economic policy compared to domestic trade and agriculture.
Economic Prosperity and Problems
Prosperity
Post-war stability allowed for some economic recovery.
Wool and cloth exports remained the backbone of the economy.
London and other urban centres like Bristol and York prospered from trade and crafts.
Economic Hardship
Bad harvests in the 1490s led to food shortages and inflation.
Reliance on agriculture meant economic well-being was highly weather-dependent.
Enclosure of land began to cause displacement and resentment among rural populations.
Debasement of coinage, a common Tudor tactic later, was not significant under Henry VII, though concerns over currency stability persisted.
Henry sought a balanced economic approach—encouraging growth without risking instability, and prioritising security over aggressive financial expansion.
FAQ
Henry VII recognised that trade could be wielded as a political weapon to reinforce royal authority and suppress opposition. This was particularly evident in his handling of relations with Burgundy, a key trading partner, which harboured Yorkist pretender Perkin Warbeck. In 1493, Henry imposed a trade embargo on Burgundy, a bold move that risked damaging England’s key cloth exports but ultimately forced the Duchy to reconsider its position. The embargo lasted until 1496, when the Intercursus Magnus was agreed, restoring favourable trading conditions. This episode demonstrated Henry’s willingness to sacrifice short-term economic gain to safeguard his dynastic security. Moreover, he promoted English commercial interests through treaties such as those with Denmark and Florence, enhancing the prestige of the Merchant Adventurers. These moves were not merely economic but strategic, ensuring merchants’ loyalty and promoting prosperity that strengthened the Crown’s position at home. By integrating trade with diplomacy, Henry enhanced both national wealth and royal legitimacy.
The Cornish Rebellion of 1497 posed a significant threat due to its scale, causes, and proximity to the centre of royal power. Sparked by resentment over taxation to fund a campaign against Scotland—seen as irrelevant to Cornish interests—the rebellion drew widespread support across Cornwall and parts of the south-west. Crucially, it advanced with minimal resistance across southern England and reached Blackheath, just outside London. The government’s inability to stop the march sooner exposed the weakness of regional defences and the vulnerability of royal authority. Unlike earlier uprisings, this was not led by nobles but by commoners, indicating deep socioeconomic frustration and the potential for mass unrest. Furthermore, it occurred in the same year that Perkin Warbeck made a renewed attempt to exploit Cornish discontent, amplifying the threat to Henry’s regime. While the rebellion was ultimately crushed, it prompted Henry to reassess his military readiness and tighten control over regional governance, particularly in the West Country.
Henry VII implemented a range of policies to curb noble power, aiming to prevent the kind of baronial disorder that had characterised the Wars of the Roses. He used bonds and recognisances—legal agreements forcing nobles to behave under threat of severe financial penalties—to ensure loyalty and discourage rebellion. The King’s Council Learned in the Law oversaw these agreements and acted swiftly against disobedience. He also strictly controlled retaining, the practice of maintaining private armies, which had fuelled past conflicts. Laws in 1487 and 1504 limited retaining without royal licence, reducing the military independence of powerful nobles. Henry further reduced the creation of new peerages, ensuring fewer individuals held hereditary power and influence. Promotions were granted based on loyalty and service rather than lineage. By centralising authority and weakening the traditional nobility’s autonomy, Henry created a more stable political environment and ensured that the threat of rebellion was not fuelled by the ambitions of the aristocracy.
While the Treaty of Medina del Campo (1489) is most noted for arranging the marriage between Prince Arthur and Catherine of Aragon, its broader significance lay in the political and economic foundations it established between England and Spain. The treaty represented a recognition of Henry VII’s legitimacy by one of Europe’s most powerful monarchies, lending considerable international prestige to the Tudor dynasty. It also included mutual defence clauses, obligating both countries to support each other militarily against France, thereby isolating a traditional English enemy. Furthermore, the treaty provided commercial advantages, granting English merchants equal trading rights in Spanish ports, a notable gain given Spain’s dominance in transatlantic exploration and Mediterranean trade. Though not all clauses were immediately fulfilled—Arthur’s early death and Spanish dynastic changes complicated matters—the treaty exemplified Henry’s diplomatic skill in elevating England’s international standing. It also laid the groundwork for future relations with Spain, including the eventual marriage of Henry VIII and Catherine.
Although the English Renaissance is more commonly associated with the reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, its foundations were laid under Henry VII, particularly through his cautious patronage of humanist ideas and education. The influence of Italian Renaissance humanism began to reach England via educated clergy and foreign scholars. Henry’s court supported humanist thinkers such as John Colet, who promoted classical learning and religious reform, and Thomas Linacre, a physician trained in Italy who brought continental medical knowledge to England. Humanist education flourished, especially in grammar schools and universities, where Latin and rhetoric gained prominence. Henry also invested in the rebuilding and founding of colleges, including the significant development of King’s College Chapel at Cambridge. While artistic patronage remained relatively conservative, limited primarily to religious buildings and tombs, these early initiatives set the intellectual tone for the Tudor period. Henry’s support for learning fostered a class of educated men loyal to the Crown and prepared the ground for later cultural achievements.
Practice Questions
To what extent was Henry VII’s foreign policy successful in securing England’s position in Europe?
Henry VII’s foreign policy was largely successful in securing England’s position through diplomatic marriages and strategic treaties. The Treaty of Medina del Campo aligned England with Spain, while the Treaty of Étaples extracted concessions from France and reduced Yorkist threats. Relations with Scotland improved through the Treaty of Ayton and the marriage alliance between Margaret Tudor and James IV. Though trade embargoes with Burgundy risked economic damage, they were effective in countering support for pretenders. While Henry avoided costly wars, he maintained England’s independence and prestige, ensuring relative stability in a volatile international landscape.
Explain how Henry VII responded to internal rebellion and regional unrest during his reign.
Henry VII addressed rebellion and regional unrest with a combination of force and strategic control. The Yorkshire Rebellion was swiftly repressed after the murder of the Earl of Northumberland, and the Cornish Rebellion was crushed at Blackheath, showing Henry’s military decisiveness. To prevent future unrest, Henry reinforced royal authority by strengthening Justices of the Peace and expanding his use of bonds and recognisances. His careful monitoring of noble power and centralised administration helped neutralise potential threats. Though unrest reflected deep-seated grievances, especially over taxation, Henry’s responses reinforced his legitimacy and ensured internal peace throughout much of his reign.
