Peter the Great’s early foreign policy was driven by the strategic desire for warm-water ports, military prestige, and increased European recognition.
Foreign Aims and Strategic Vision
Importance of Warm-Water Ports
One of the central objectives of Peter’s foreign policy was to secure access to warm-water ports. This would:
Enable year-round maritime trade, unlike Russia’s frozen northern ports.
Reduce economic isolation and allow for greater commercial integration with Western Europe.
Establish Russia as a naval power, in line with Peter’s broader modernisation efforts.
Warm-water access was essential for both economic modernisation and military strategy, fuelling Peter’s campaigns to the south (against the Ottoman Empire) and the west (against Sweden).
Expansion Westward
Peter’s interest in expanding westward was closely tied to:
Challenging Sweden’s dominance in the Baltic region.
Seeking territorial acquisition to build a strong Russian presence in the Baltic Sea.
Establishing a new capital near the Baltic (eventually St Petersburg), which would serve both symbolic and practical roles.
Expansion westward was thus not just a geopolitical move, but one tied to Peter’s broader reforms and modernisation programme.
The War with the Ottoman Empire
Background
The Ottoman Empire controlled crucial access points to the Black Sea, a key area for Peter’s southern expansion. Tensions had long existed between the Tsardom of Russia and the Ottoman Empire due to:
Religious and cultural conflicts between Orthodox Russia and Muslim Ottoman Turks.
The strategic importance of the Azov Sea and Black Sea.
The Azov Campaigns (1695–1696)
In 1695, Peter launched his first Azov campaign, aiming to capture the fortress of Azov, a gateway to the Black Sea.
The initial campaign failed due to poor planning and lack of naval support.
In 1696, Peter tried again, this time with a newly constructed naval fleet on the Don River.
The second campaign was successful; Azov was captured in July 1696.
This marked the beginning of Russia’s efforts to become a naval power, with Azov serving as Russia’s first warm-water port.
Naval Implications
Following this success, Peter established:
The Russian Navy, beginning with ships built at Voronezh.
The foundations of Russian maritime capability, which would grow in significance through later campaigns.
The Treaty of Constantinople (1700)
Signed between Russia and the Ottoman Empire in July 1700, this treaty:
Confirmed Russia’s control of Azov.
Marked a temporary end to hostilities with the Ottoman Empire.
Allowed Peter to turn his attention westward, towards Sweden and the Baltic.
The treaty was a diplomatic success, giving Peter breathing room for his more ambitious Baltic ambitions.
The Great Northern War (1700–1721)
Causes and Aims
Peter entered the Great Northern War to challenge Swedish dominance in the Baltic, particularly under the rule of Charles XII of Sweden. The war served several goals:
Securing territory along the Baltic coast for warm-water access.
Breaking Sweden’s power and redistributing influence among regional players like Denmark and Saxony.
Establishing Russia as a major European military power.
Although the war extended well beyond 1707, its early years (covered in this subsubtopic) are essential for understanding Russia’s rise.
Outbreak of War
The war began in 1700, with an anti-Swedish coalition formed between Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland-Lithuania.
Peter hoped to strike Sweden while Charles XII was young and inexperienced.
Battle of Narva (1700)
Occurred in November 1700, near the start of the war.
Russian forces besieged Narva, a key Swedish fortress.
Despite numerical superiority, the Russians were decisively defeated by a smaller Swedish force.
Exposed the weaknesses in Russian military organisation, discipline, and training.
Key impacts:
A humbling defeat for Peter.
Triggered urgent and systematic military reforms, including new training regimes, modern equipment, and enhanced officer recruitment.
Military Reform and Recovery (1700–1707)
Following Narva, Peter undertook a broad military overhaul:
Modernised the army with Western-style drills and ranks.
Introduced new weaponry and conscription policies.
Expanded the Russian navy, with shipyards established along the Don and Neva rivers.
By 1707, Russia was in a much stronger military position, even if it had not yet decisively defeated Sweden.
Skirmishes and Positioning (1701–1707)
Between Narva and the later victory at Poltava (1709), Russia experienced a period of strategic regrouping:
Russian forces avoided direct confrontation with Charles XII.
Instead, they focused on harassing Swedish supply lines, fortifying positions, and consolidating control over Livonia and Ingria.
Small victories and territorial gains helped to weaken Swedish control in the region.
Although major battles like Poltava occurred after 1707, the groundwork was laid in this earlier period.
Foreign Perception
Russia’s defeat at Narva damaged its reputation, but Peter’s rapid reforms impressed observers across Europe.
The foundation of St Petersburg in 1703 (built in territory taken from Sweden) was both a symbol of Russian ambition and a strategic base for continued war efforts.
Outcomes by 1707
By the end of this period:
Russia had transformed its military apparatus, enabling future victories.
Naval capacity had increased significantly, notably in the south with Azov and in the Baltic with ports like Kronstadt.
Russia was gaining recognition as a rising military and political power.
While Sweden remained a formidable opponent, the balance of power was beginning to shift.
Key Points (Bullet Format for Clarity)
Strategic aims: Warm-water ports and Baltic access were key to Peter’s foreign policy.
Ottoman War:
First Azov campaign (1695) failed.
Second campaign (1696) succeeded due to naval support.
Treaty of Constantinople (1700) confirmed Azov, freeing Russia to focus westward.
Great Northern War:
Started in 1700 against Sweden.
Battle of Narva (1700): Russian defeat led to widespread reforms.
Between 1701–1707: Strategic skirmishes and preparation.
Reforms:
Major military restructuring, conscription, and modernisation.
Creation of a navy and establishment of Baltic bases.
Position by 1707:
Russia not yet dominant but significantly stronger.
Laid foundations for later successes (e.g. Poltava in 1709).
Through these efforts, Peter the Great laid the military and diplomatic foundations for Russia’s emergence as a dominant force in European affairs.
FAQ
Peter the Great believed naval power was essential for modernising Russia and expanding its geopolitical influence. Inspired by his visits to Western Europe during the Great Embassy, he recognised that leading European powers derived much of their strength from maritime capability. Russia, landlocked and with limited access to navigable warm-water ports, was at a strategic disadvantage. The capture of Azov in 1696 prompted Peter to build the first Russian navy, constructing ships at Voronezh and establishing naval training schools. By 1707, this shift had altered the nature of Russian foreign policy, allowing Peter to pursue maritime ambitions against both the Ottomans and the Swedes. The naval presence in the Azov and Baltic Seas demonstrated Russia's evolving ability to project power beyond its borders. Furthermore, this naval development was not just military; it facilitated trade, diplomacy, and port city construction, such as the early development of St Petersburg. Thus, Russia’s strategic priorities began to mirror those of Western maritime empires.
The Treaty of Constantinople in 1700 was distinct in its tone and terms compared to previous Russo-Ottoman agreements, which typically reflected ongoing hostility and temporary truces. Unlike earlier treaties that offered only short-term peace or reaffirmed the status quo, this agreement granted Russia permanent possession of Azov and nearby fortresses such as Taganrog. It marked a significant diplomatic breakthrough because it legitimised Russia’s southern expansion and naval presence on the Black Sea coast. The treaty was diplomatically significant as it temporarily removed the Ottoman Empire as an immediate threat, enabling Peter to focus on more pressing concerns in the Baltic. It also marked a rare moment of peace between two traditionally antagonistic empires. Additionally, the treaty signified a shift in Russia’s diplomatic maturity—Peter successfully balanced two major theatres of conflict, managing alliances and securing peace while preparing for long-term strategic gains in the west. This established a precedent for more calculated Russian diplomacy under Peter’s rule.
Azov was critical to Russian strategic planning because it served as a key gateway to the Black Sea, offering the potential for trade routes to the Mediterranean and beyond. For centuries, Russia had been isolated from key maritime trade networks, and Azov’s location allowed access to important waterways controlled by the Ottoman Empire. However, the fortress was notoriously difficult to capture. Its formidable defences, including thick walls and strong garrisons, were reinforced by Ottoman naval support from the sea, making a siege nearly impossible without a functioning Russian navy. The failed 1695 campaign exposed this weakness. Peter learned from this and rapidly constructed a fleet for riverine and coastal operations. In the successful 1696 campaign, the Russian navy blocked maritime reinforcements, enabling a land siege to succeed. Azov’s capture therefore symbolised not just a military win but also Russia’s transformation into a multi-theatre power capable of combining naval and land forces to achieve strategic objectives.
Internally, Peter the Great faced numerous obstacles while pursuing his foreign policy goals. Firstly, there was resistance from conservative elements of the Russian nobility (boyars), who saw his westernisation and militarisation as threats to traditional privileges and Orthodox values. This internal opposition was compounded by institutional inertia, with outdated administrative structures struggling to support sustained military campaigns. Financially, Russia lacked the tax base and state apparatus to fund prolonged wars, prompting Peter to impose heavy taxation, monopolies, and forced conscription—all of which caused unrest among peasants and townspeople. Additionally, the Streltsy, a semi-autonomous military corps, were unreliable and even mutinous during his early reign, culminating in uprisings that required violent suppression. Despite these pressures, Peter pushed forward by restructuring the army, sidelining traditional power brokers, and centralising state control. His ability to balance these internal pressures while simultaneously waging foreign campaigns was a testament to his autocratic style and long-term vision for Russia’s transformation.
By 1707, Peter’s foreign policy had markedly shifted Russia’s status from a peripheral power to a rising actor in European geopolitics. His strategic victories, notably the capture of Azov and the diplomatic Treaty of Constantinople, positioned Russia as a player in the struggle for influence around the Black Sea. Meanwhile, participation in the Great Northern War demonstrated Russia’s willingness and capacity to confront a major European power—Sweden—on equal terms. Though early military defeats, like Narva, exposed weaknesses, the extensive reforms that followed signalled a new level of state-led modernisation. European observers began to take Russia more seriously, especially as Peter built a navy, centralised his administration, and engaged in alliance-building. The founding of St Petersburg in 1703 projected a powerful image of Russia’s westward ambitions. Thus, Peter’s foreign policy laid the institutional and diplomatic foundations for Russia’s future role in the European balance of power, culminating in increased involvement in continental affairs in the 18th century.
Practice Questions
To what extent did Peter the Great's foreign policy between 1682 and 1707 succeed in achieving his strategic aims?
Peter the Great's foreign policy between 1682 and 1707 had partial success. His primary aim of securing warm-water ports was advanced through the successful capture of Azov in 1696 and confirmed by the Treaty of Constantinople in 1700. However, his attempts to break Swedish control in the Baltic initially failed, most notably at Narva. Despite this, his military reforms during the Great Northern War laid the foundation for future victories. Thus, while immediate territorial gains were limited, the groundwork for Russia’s emergence as a great power was firmly established, indicating moderate but crucial early success.
Explain the significance of the Great Northern War for Russian foreign policy up to 1707.
The Great Northern War was pivotal for Peter’s foreign policy as it directly challenged Sweden’s Baltic dominance. Although Russia suffered a major setback at Narva in 1700, the war forced Peter to implement extensive military reforms, professionalising the army and navy. These developments improved Russia’s international standing and allowed it to establish a Baltic foothold, including the founding of St Petersburg. By 1707, although decisive victories like Poltava had not yet occurred, the strategic shift towards the west was firmly underway. The war was therefore instrumental in reshaping Russia’s foreign priorities and asserting its ambition as a European power.
