This period saw dramatic shifts in Irish nationalism, partition, and constitutional conflict, with Britain responding to rising Irish independence movements and growing tensions.
Causes and Consequences of the Easter Rising (1916)
Causes of the Rising
Nationalist frustration: The Home Rule Bill of 1912 had promised Irish self-government, but its implementation was delayed due to the outbreak of the First World War. Many Irish nationalists saw this as a betrayal.
Radical nationalist groups: The Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), a secret organisation committed to Irish independence, planned an insurrection. They were supported by parts of the Irish Volunteers, a paramilitary group.
Cultural nationalism: The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a revival of Irish identity through the Gaelic League, Irish language promotion, and literary nationalism, which fuelled anti-British sentiment.
German support: With Britain at war, Irish rebels hoped to receive aid from Germany. The failed Arms shipment aboard the Aud (captured by the British) showed limited but real foreign interest.
Rising militarisation: Tensions between the Ulster Volunteers (pro-union) and Irish Volunteers mirrored rising militarisation, preparing Ireland for violent conflict.
The Easter Rising
Took place during Easter Week, April 1916, primarily in Dublin.
About 1,600 rebels, including members of the IRB, Irish Volunteers, and the Irish Citizen Army, seized key buildings, including the General Post Office (GPO).
Led by figures such as Patrick Pearse, James Connolly, and Thomas Clarke.
The rebellion lasted six days and was violently suppressed by the British Army, resulting in over 400 deaths, including civilians.
Consequences of the Rising
Executions: 15 rebel leaders were swiftly executed by firing squad. This harsh response turned public opinion against the British and created martyrs for the cause.
Increased support for Sinn Féin: Though not directly involved, Sinn Féin was blamed and subsequently attracted mass support.
Radicalisation of Irish politics: The Rising marked a shift from constitutional nationalism (e.g. Irish Parliamentary Party) to militant republicanism.
British crackdown: The Defence of the Realm Act enabled mass arrests and internment without trial, deepening nationalist resentment.
Legacy: The Rising became a symbol of Irish resistance, and its memory was celebrated in republican circles.
The Anglo-Irish War (1919–1921)
Origins and Early Conflict
After the 1918 General Election, Sinn Féin won 73 out of 105 Irish seats, refusing to sit in Westminster. They formed Dáil Éireann, an independent Irish parliament, in January 1919.
On the same day, two RIC officers were killed at Soloheadbeg, marking the start of the Anglo-Irish War, also known as the Irish War of Independence.
Guerrilla Tactics
The Irish Republican Army (IRA), led by Michael Collins and others, used guerrilla warfare, ambushes, and targeted assassinations.
British forces, including the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC), Black and Tans, and Auxiliaries, were tasked with suppressing the IRA. These groups became notorious for indiscipline and brutality.
The war was characterised by hit-and-run attacks, sabotage, and reprisals by British forces, including burning of towns like Cork (1920).
British Response
The British government labelled the conflict as a crime wave, refusing to recognise the IRA as legitimate combatants.
Implementation of martial law and military courts in several counties.
Civilian casualties and indiscriminate reprisals alienated the Irish population, increasing support for independence.
Negotiations and Truce
By mid-1921, the war reached a stalemate. Exhaustion and public pressure forced both sides towards talks.
A truce was agreed in July 1921, paving the way for formal negotiations.
The Government of Ireland Act (1920)
Provisions of the Act
The Act attempted to appease both Unionists and Nationalists by establishing two Home Rule parliaments: one in Belfast (Northern Ireland) and one in Dublin (Southern Ireland).
It formally partitioned Ireland into:
Northern Ireland: Six counties with a Unionist majority.
Southern Ireland: Twenty-six counties, largely nationalist.
Outcomes
Only Northern Ireland’s parliament functioned as intended. Southern Ireland’s parliament was ignored by Sinn Féin, which viewed the Dáil as the legitimate assembly.
The Act institutionalised partition, laying foundations for future tension.
Northern Ireland received devolved powers under a Unionist government led by James Craig.
Reactions
Unionists broadly supported the Act as it guaranteed continued connection with Britain.
Nationalists rejected the Act, seeing it as an obstacle to full independence.
The Act failed to quell violence or resolve nationalist grievances.
The Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) and Irish Civil War
The Treaty Negotiations
Negotiations took place in London (October–December 1921), involving leaders such as Arthur Griffith, Michael Collins, and British representatives led by David Lloyd George.
The Anglo-Irish Treaty (6 December 1921) provided for:
Creation of the Irish Free State as a self-governing dominion within the British Empire.
An oath of allegiance to the British Crown.
A boundary commission to determine the border between North and South.
British control over naval bases retained (e.g., in Treaty Ports).
Controversy and Division
The Treaty split Sinn Féin and the IRA:
Pro-Treaty: Led by Collins and Griffith, saw it as a stepping stone to full independence.
Anti-Treaty: Led by Éamon de Valera, rejected the oath and partition.
The Irish Civil War (1922–23)
Began in June 1922 when pro-Treaty forces attacked anti-Treaty forces occupying Four Courts in Dublin.
Provisional Government forces (the Free State Army) eventually defeated the anti-Treaty side.
Key events:
Assassinations, including Michael Collins in August 1922.
Anti-Treaty guerrilla resistance.
Execution of anti-Treaty prisoners, including Erskine Childers.
Consequences of the Civil War
Deep political and personal divisions that shaped Irish politics for decades.
Formation of new political parties:
Cumann na nGaedheal (pro-Treaty).
Fianna Fáil (anti-Treaty, later formed by de Valera in 1926).
Solidified the independence of the Irish Free State, but also entrenched partition.
Ireland’s Status and Neutrality Before WWII
Political Developments Post-Civil War
In 1932, Éamon de Valera and Fianna Fáil won the general election.
The Irish Free State moved further from Britain:
Abolished the oath of allegiance.
Ended the payment of land annuities to Britain, leading to the Economic War (1932–38).
Gradually dismantled remaining Treaty provisions.
1937 Constitution
A new constitution, Bunreacht na hÉireann, was adopted in 1937:
Renamed the state Éire (Ireland).
Asserted sovereignty and removed references to the British monarch.
Defined Ireland as a unitary state, implicitly claiming jurisdiction over the North.
Northern Ireland’s Position
Continued as a devolved region within the UK under Unionist control.
Catholic and nationalist minorities faced systemic discrimination in:
Housing and employment.
Electoral boundaries (gerrymandering).
Policing (dominated by Protestant officers).
Ireland and Neutrality
As Europe moved towards war, Ireland adopted a neutral stance:
Reflected desire to assert sovereignty.
Avoided entanglement in another British-led conflict.
Appealed to both nationalist pride and war-weariness.
Continued Tensions
Despite formal peace, relations between the UK and Ireland remained strained:
The IRA remained active and hostile to partition.
Occasional cross-border violence and tensions with British authorities.
Ireland’s refusal to rejoin the Commonwealth further distanced the two nations.
This subperiod concluded with Ireland firmly on a path of independent development, though the legacy of partition and unequal Anglo-Irish relations persisted into the next decades.
FAQ
Women played a vital but often under-recognised role in the Irish independence movement. During the Easter Rising, members of Cumann na mBan, a nationalist women's organisation, acted as couriers, nurses, and even combatants. Women like Constance Markievicz not only fought but also assumed leadership roles—Markievicz became the first woman elected to the British Parliament in 1918 (though she did not take her seat). In the War of Independence, women provided shelter to IRA members, smuggled arms, and gathered intelligence, often operating under the radar of British forces. During the Civil War, anti-Treaty women were particularly active, but they suffered disproportionately harsh treatment, including imprisonment and censorship. Despite their efforts, the post-independence Free State largely excluded women from political power. The 1937 Constitution reinforced traditional gender roles, defining women primarily as homemakers, which marked a setback for women's rights compared to their revolutionary involvement earlier in the period.
The Catholic Church was a dominant force in shaping both the politics and societal values of the Irish Free State from its establishment in 1922. Deeply intertwined with national identity, the Church supported the anti-Treaty faction during the Civil War, although it later aligned closely with the Free State. It wielded considerable influence over the education system, hospitals, and morality laws. The Church’s conservative social ethos shaped legislation, including restrictions on divorce, contraception, and censorship of literature and film. The 1937 Constitution, largely drafted under de Valera, reflected Catholic doctrine by recognising the “special position” of the Church and idealising women’s role within the family. The clergy held substantial sway over voting patterns and political discourse, often framing national debates in moral terms. Though it provided stability and social cohesion for many, the Church’s pervasive presence curtailed progressive reform and contributed to a deeply conservative cultural environment during the interwar period.
The Boundary Commission, established under the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty, was intended to adjust the border between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State based on the “wishes of the inhabitants” and economic/geographic considerations. Nationalists hoped this would lead to significant transfers of territory to the Free State, particularly areas with large Catholic populations. However, the Commission’s leaked recommendations in 1925 proposed only minor changes, with some areas even moving from the Free State to Northern Ireland. This revelation sparked outrage in Dublin and disappointment among nationalists. To avoid destabilising the delicate post-Civil War political balance, the British, Irish Free State, and Northern Irish governments agreed to suppress the report and maintain the existing border. In return, the Free State was released from financial obligations related to the Treaty, such as land annuities. The outcome confirmed the permanence of partition, entrenched nationalist disillusionment, and reinforced Northern Ireland's status within the United Kingdom.
Anglo-Irish relations in the 1930s were significantly affected by economic disputes, particularly the Anglo-Irish Economic War. When Éamon de Valera’s government ceased payment of land annuities—repayments to Britain by Irish farmers for land bought under earlier Acts—the British responded with tariffs on Irish agricultural exports, especially cattle. In turn, Ireland imposed duties on British imports. This tit-for-tat trade conflict severely impacted the Irish economy, which was heavily reliant on agricultural exports to Britain. Rural communities suffered most, experiencing falling incomes and increased hardship during a period already strained by the global Depression. The dispute continued until the Anglo-Irish Agreements of 1938, in which the Free State agreed to a one-off payment, and Britain returned control of the Treaty Ports. Though economically damaging, the conflict allowed de Valera to assert Irish sovereignty, reduce dependence on Britain, and win political support for his nationalist agenda. It also laid groundwork for formal neutrality in the Second World War.
Northern Ireland remained under Unionist control primarily because of the demographic majority of Protestants in the six counties chosen for partition. The Northern Ireland Parliament, established in 1921, was dominated by the Ulster Unionist Party, which consistently held power. This allowed Unionists to shape policies that favoured their community while marginalising the Catholic and nationalist minority. Catholics faced systemic discrimination in housing, employment, and voting rights, including gerrymandering of electoral boundaries to limit their representation. The Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), heavily Protestant, was viewed as biased and unaccountable by the Catholic population. Education systems were segregated, and nationalist culture was often suppressed. Many Catholics boycotted the political system altogether, refusing to recognise the legitimacy of the Northern state. The entrenched inequalities and lack of civil rights for Catholics would remain largely unchallenged until the rise of the civil rights movement in the late 1960s, setting the stage for future conflict.
Practice Questions
‘The Easter Rising of 1916 was the most significant turning point in Irish nationalism between 1916 and 1939.’ Assess the validity of this view.
The Easter Rising was pivotal in radicalising Irish nationalism and eroding support for constitutional methods. The British executions of the leaders generated widespread sympathy for republicanism, ultimately leading to Sinn Féin’s 1918 election victory and the formation of the Dáil. However, the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 arguably represented a more concrete shift by achieving partial independence. The 1937 Constitution and de Valera’s policies further consolidated sovereignty. Therefore, while the Easter Rising ignited nationalist sentiment, later political developments arguably had greater tangible consequences, suggesting it was a vital but not the most significant turning point.
How important was British policy in shaping Anglo-Irish relations between 1916 and 1939?
British policy played a crucial role in fuelling nationalist resentment and conflict. The suppression of the Easter Rising and harsh reprisals alienated moderates. The Government of Ireland Act (1920) entrenched partition, while inconsistent policies during the Anglo-Irish War heightened tensions. The Treaty of 1921 caused deep division, triggering civil war. However, Irish leaders such as de Valera also shaped relations significantly, particularly through the 1937 Constitution and economic policy. While British decisions provided the context for much of the conflict, Irish agency in redefining sovereignty means British policy was vital but not wholly determinant.
