This period saw growing debate in Britain about imperial expansion and complex, often violent, relationships with indigenous peoples across the empire.
Attitudes to Imperialism in Britain
Popular Support for Empire
Throughout 1857–1890, British public opinion generally favoured imperial expansion, often shaped by national pride and perceived racial superiority.
National pride: The empire was seen as a symbol of British greatness, fostering a sense of unity and identity.
Religious and civilising missions: Many Britons believed it was their duty to bring Christianity and 'civilisation' to indigenous populations, justifying expansion as moral and benevolent.
Social Darwinism: Ideas of racial hierarchy influenced beliefs in the British right to dominate supposedly 'lesser' peoples.
Economic benefits: The empire was popularly linked to wealth, trade, and employment, especially in industrial centres reliant on imperial raw materials.
However, support was not universal. Some critics, particularly from the Liberal Party, questioned the morality and costs of empire, highlighting its brutality and inequality.
Imperial Exhibitions
Imperial exhibitions provided a tangible way for the British public to engage with the empire, reinforcing ideas of superiority and control.
The 1862 International Exhibition in London and 1886 Colonial and Indian Exhibition showcased products, cultures, and artefacts from colonies.
Indigenous people were often presented in staged ‘native villages’, reinforcing stereotypes and justifying British rule.
These exhibitions celebrated empire as a source of wonder and exoticism, strengthening popular support and legitimising control through spectacle.
Media Portrayals
The expanding British press played a critical role in shaping imperial attitudes.
Newspapers such as The Times, Daily Telegraph, and regional papers provided regular coverage of imperial campaigns and colonial affairs.
War reporting, particularly during events like the Indian Mutiny, depicted British forces as heroic defenders of order against barbaric insurgents.
Illustrated journals like The Illustrated London News used images to depict indigenous peoples as primitive and dangerous.
These portrayals created and reinforced a narrative of the empire as both noble and necessary, while downplaying indigenous perspectives and atrocities committed by British forces.
Political Debates over Empire
Liberal vs Conservative Imperial Policy
The two main political parties held differing views on the empire, which shaped British policy and public discourse.
The Liberal Party
Often critical of imperial expansion, especially under leaders like William Gladstone.
Favoured limited colonial engagement, focusing on trade and moral governance rather than territorial conquest.
Promoted free trade and the idea that colonies should eventually become self-governing.
Critics within the party, however, sometimes supported intervention on humanitarian or economic grounds.
The Conservative Party
Strongly supported imperial expansion and control, especially under Benjamin Disraeli.
Emphasised empire as a means of strengthening Britain’s global power and prestige.
Advocated for a more assertive foreign policy and celebrated imperial victories.
Disraeli’s acquisition of the Suez Canal shares in 1875 was praised as a bold imperial move (though direct policy on Egypt is covered in 9.1.1).
Political Conflicts and Public Opinion
Imperial issues were frequently debated in Parliament and during general elections.
The ‘Pro-Imperial’ stance helped the Conservatives appeal to working- and middle-class voters who associated the empire with British success.
The Liberals' more cautious stance often faced criticism as being weak or unpatriotic, though it attracted anti-imperialist support, especially from radical and Nonconformist groups.
The Indian Mutiny (1857)
Causes
The Indian Mutiny—also called the First War of Independence by Indian historians—was a major turning point in imperial relations.
Military grievances: Indian sepoys resented pay disparities, lack of promotion, and cultural insensitivity, particularly the use of cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, offensive to Hindus and Muslims.
Political tensions: The annexation of princely states (e.g. Awadh) under the Doctrine of Lapse undermined traditional Indian rulers.
Religious fears: Indians feared British intentions to forcibly convert them to Christianity.
Racial resentment: British attitudes and policies increasingly disrespected Indian traditions, promoting racial segregation and hierarchy.
Course of the Mutiny
Began in Meerut in May 1857 and quickly spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, and central India.
Featured brutal violence on both sides; British reprisals were especially harsh.
Key centres of resistance included Lucknow and Jhansi, where figures like Rani Lakshmibai became symbols of defiance.
The rebellion was eventually suppressed in 1858, but it shocked the British public and government.
Consequences
Led to the abolition of the East India Company and direct rule by the British Crown: the beginning of the British Raj.
India became the ‘Jewel in the Crown’ of the empire, but also the focus of greater surveillance and control.
British policy became more racially conservative: increased segregation, exclusion of Indians from senior posts, and deliberate distancing from Indian customs.
In Britain, the Mutiny prompted widespread fear of ‘native uprising’ and justified harsher colonial policies.
Relations with the Boers and Bantu Peoples
The Boers
The Boers (Dutch-speaking settlers in South Africa) posed both a practical and ideological challenge to British authority.
The British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 led to conflict with the Boers, who valued their independence.
The First Boer War (1880–81) was a humiliating defeat for Britain, especially at Majuba Hill, where British troops were routed.
This exposed limits of British military power and undermined the image of invincibility.
In response, Britain agreed to restore self-government to the Transvaal, though tensions remained unresolved, setting the stage for future conflict.
The Bantu Peoples
British interaction with indigenous African populations, particularly the Zulu and Xhosa, was marked by military conflict, land seizure, and social disruption.
Xhosa Wars
A series of nine conflicts (ending in 1879) between the British and the Xhosa people in the Eastern Cape region.
Triggered by land encroachment, cattle raids, and mutual distrust.
British forces eventually subdued the Xhosa and incorporated their lands into Cape Colony.
Anglo-Zulu War (1879)
The British invaded Zululand due to fears of Zulu military strength and growing Boer–Zulu tension.
The Zulu victory at the Battle of Isandlwana shocked Britain, leading to a reassessment of military practices.
However, the British eventually defeated the Zulu at Ulundi, leading to the disintegration of the Zulu kingdom.
The war reinforced racial narratives in British media and political circles: Zulus were both feared and admired as ‘noble savages’.
Impact of Settler Expansion
British settlers in Natal and the Cape Colony displaced indigenous peoples through land grabs, forced labour, and legal manipulation.
Land disputes were common, as colonial governments passed legislation to confiscate or restrict indigenous land ownership.
Indigenous resistance was met with military suppression, though it persisted in various forms, including guerrilla tactics and legal petitions.
Indigenous Resistance and British Responses
While British forces often succeeded militarily, resistance challenged the moral justification of empire.
Media portrayals depicted indigenous resistance as irrational, violent, or barbaric, while downplaying British aggression.
Missionaries and humanitarian critics sometimes protested abuses, but their influence was limited by entrenched racial and economic interests.
FAQ
British schools played a crucial role in promoting pro-imperial attitudes during this period. From the 1860s onward, education reforms like the Elementary Education Act (1870) increased literacy and school attendance, allowing greater dissemination of imperial ideology. Textbooks often portrayed the empire as a source of national pride, civilisation, and moral duty. They emphasised the bravery of British soldiers, the benefits of colonial rule for indigenous peoples, and the exoticism of the colonies. The curriculum included stories of explorers, administrators, and missionaries, often casting them as heroic figures. Geography and history lessons highlighted British global dominance, fostering a worldview in which empire was both normal and necessary. Empire Day, introduced later but with earlier ideological roots, encouraged children to express loyalty to the Crown and pride in Britain’s imperial role. This systematic educational messaging ensured that younger generations grew up seeing the empire as a natural and admirable part of British identity.
Religious institutions were instrumental in shaping British views of indigenous peoples by framing imperialism as a moral mission. Missionary societies, such as the Church Missionary Society (CMS) and the London Missionary Society (LMS), sent representatives to Africa, India, and other colonies to convert indigenous populations to Christianity. These efforts were often reported in religious magazines, pamphlets, and sermons, which were widely distributed and read by the British public. Missionaries described indigenous peoples as spiritually lost and in need of salvation, reinforcing the idea of British cultural and moral superiority. Their accounts, though sometimes sympathetic, also depicted traditional customs and religions as primitive or barbaric. This portrayal helped justify British control and the restructuring of indigenous societies under Christian norms. Religious rhetoric was also used to defend controversial imperial actions, such as the suppression of uprisings or the imposition of Western education systems. Consequently, churches played a dual role in encouraging support for empire while shaping racialised perceptions of colonial subjects.
British women played an active and often overlooked role in shaping imperial attitudes. Middle- and upper-class women participated through missionary work, charity, literature, and the education of children. Organisations like the Zenana Mission focused on converting and educating Indian women, reinforcing the idea that British women had a moral duty to uplift their colonial counterparts. In literature, female authors such as Flora Annie Steel and Mary Kingsley wrote popular works that framed empire as a civilising force while offering insights into colonial life. Women also organised and attended lectures, exhibitions, and fundraisers for imperial causes, spreading pro-imperial sentiment within their social circles. Furthermore, in their roles as mothers and teachers, women were key transmitters of imperial values to children, especially sons who might later serve in the colonies. While excluded from formal politics, women’s social influence helped embed imperial ideologies in domestic and educational spheres, sustaining support for empire across generations.
British settlers in southern Africa during 1857–1890 generally viewed indigenous African communities through a lens of racial superiority and economic self-interest. They saw land as a resource for agricultural and commercial exploitation and often regarded African land rights as illegitimate. Settlers pushed for legal frameworks that favoured their land claims and imposed systems of forced labour and taxation. Interactions were frequently marked by tension and conflict, particularly over land ownership and cattle raiding. Many settlers perceived African resistance as a threat to British civilisation, justifying punitive expeditions and the expansion of settler militias. Cultural interactions were minimal and typically unbalanced, with settlers imposing Western dress, religion, and language through missionary collaboration. In colonial courts and governance structures, indigenous voices were marginalised or ignored entirely. As a result, settler-indigenous relations were characterised by coercion, dispossession, and systemic inequality, setting the stage for long-term racial hierarchies and institutional segregation in southern Africa.
Print culture beyond newspapers played a vital role in normalising and romanticising the British Empire. Novels such as She by H. Rider Haggard and The Coral Island by R.M. Ballantyne offered thrilling adventures set in colonial backdrops, often featuring brave British protagonists overcoming 'savage' environments or peoples. These stories promoted the notion of British racial and moral superiority while framing imperialism as an exciting and heroic venture. Pamphlets published by missionary groups, political clubs, and societies like the Royal Colonial Institute provided ideological justifications for empire, including arguments rooted in Christianity, economic progress, and national duty. Children’s magazines such as The Boy’s Own Paper featured imperial tales that encouraged loyalty to the Crown and curiosity about the empire. Collectively, these forms of print culture saturated public life with narratives that glorified British rule and minimised indigenous perspectives. They reached a wide audience, embedding imperial attitudes in everyday reading habits across class and gender lines.
Practice Questions
To what extent did popular attitudes in Britain support imperialism in the years 1857–1890?
Popular attitudes in Britain between 1857 and 1890 largely supported imperialism, driven by national pride, religious motivations, and a belief in racial superiority. Imperial exhibitions and media portrayals glamorised colonial achievements and depicted indigenous peoples as inferior, reinforcing public enthusiasm. However, opposition existed within Liberal circles and among humanitarian critics who questioned the morality and cost of empire. Despite this, widespread public engagement with imperial narratives and economic benefits ensured strong general support. Overall, while not universal, popular attitudes were predominantly favourable and formed a key foundation for expanding British imperial policy during this period.
Explain the significance of the Indian Mutiny in shaping British imperial policy, 1857–1890.
The Indian Mutiny of 1857 significantly reshaped British imperial policy by ending East India Company rule and establishing direct Crown control, marking the start of the Raj. It exposed deep racial, religious, and political tensions, prompting harsh reprisals and a shift towards stricter military discipline and racial segregation. British attitudes hardened, with policies aiming to minimise Indian influence in governance. In Britain, the Mutiny fuelled fears of indigenous rebellion and justified increased imperial intervention. Media coverage reinforced imperial narratives and helped galvanise public support for empire, ensuring that future policy was more centralised, cautious, and racially hierarchical in nature.
