IB Syllabus focus:
‘Structural: flood defences, desalination, movable infrastructure. Non-structural: drought-resistant crops, vaccination, zoning, building codes; plans like NAPAs build resilience.’
Adaptation to climate change is essential to protect societies and ecosystems. It involves structural and non-structural approaches, addressing immediate risks while strengthening long-term resilience.
Understanding Adaptation
Adaptation refers to actions taken to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience of human and natural systems to climate change impacts. It differs from mitigation, which targets greenhouse gas emissions. Adaptation focuses on coping with consequences rather than preventing their occurrence.
Adaptation: Adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or expected climate stimuli and their effects, aimed at reducing harm or exploiting opportunities.
Adaptation strategies can be categorised into structural (physical or technological solutions) and non-structural (policy, social, and behavioural measures). Both are necessary, as climate impacts vary across regions and sectors.
Structural Adaptation
Structural adaptation involves physical infrastructure or engineered interventions to directly reduce risks caused by climate change.
Key Examples
Flood defences: Sea walls, levees, and storm surge barriers protect coastal and riverine communities from flooding.
The Maeslantkering storm-surge barrier (Netherlands) is a movable flood defence that closes during extreme sea-level events to protect Rotterdam. The image shows the articulated gates and hinge arms, illustrating how engineered structures reduce exposure to coastal flooding. This is a real-world example of structural adaptation. Source.
Desalination plants: Provide fresh water in areas facing scarcity due to drought or declining rainfall.
This schematic illustrates reverse osmosis desalination: applied pressure forces seawater through a semi-permeable membrane, separating contaminants from potable water. Key flow paths and components are clearly labelled, matching the level of process detail needed for ESS. No extra content beyond syllabus scope is included. Source.
Movable infrastructure: Relocatable housing or transport systems that can be shifted away from high-risk zones, such as flood plains.
These methods often require significant financial investment and technological expertise, making them more common in wealthier nations. However, they are effective in addressing acute risks where immediate physical protection is necessary.
Strengths of Structural Adaptation
Provides direct protection from extreme events.
Can safeguard critical infrastructure and urban centres.
Offers long-term solutions if properly maintained.
Limitations of Structural Adaptation
High cost and maintenance demands.
May create a false sense of security, encouraging risky land use.
Often less feasible for poorer or rural regions.
Non-Structural Adaptation
Non-structural adaptation involves policy, regulation, and behavioural changes to increase resilience without heavy infrastructure.
Key Examples
Drought-resistant crops: Agricultural strategies that enhance food security under variable rainfall.
Vaccination programmes: Protect communities against climate-related diseases, such as malaria or dengue fever, which may spread due to changing temperatures.
Zoning laws: Restrict development in flood-prone or coastal areas, reducing exposure.
Building codes: Mandate designs that withstand extreme weather, such as hurricanes or heatwaves.
National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs): Plans prepared by least-developed countries (LDCs) to identify urgent adaptation needs and prioritise actions.
NAPAs: National Adaptation Programmes of Action that outline urgent and immediate adaptation priorities for vulnerable developing nations, often supported by international funding mechanisms.
Non-structural measures generally require lower upfront costs, rely on governance and community participation, and are often more flexible and sustainable in the long run.
Strengths of Non-Structural Adaptation
More affordable and accessible for low-income countries.
Can be implemented relatively quickly.
Promotes community resilience through education and capacity building.
Limitations of Non-Structural Adaptation
Requires strong governance frameworks and enforcement.
Behavioural and cultural barriers can slow adoption.
May be less effective against severe or sudden climate shocks.
The Role of Resilience
Both structural and non-structural approaches aim to strengthen resilience, defined as the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganise while retaining essential function and structure.
Resilience: The ability of a system to recover from disturbances while maintaining its essential characteristics and functions.
Resilience is context-specific. For example, small island states focus on coastal protection and freshwater access, while arid regions prioritise agricultural adaptation and water management.
Combining Structural and Non-Structural Strategies
Effective adaptation usually involves a hybrid approach, where structural solutions are supported by non-structural measures. Examples include:
Building sea walls (structural) while also enforcing coastal zoning (non-structural).
Installing desalination plants (structural) alongside promoting water conservation policies (non-structural).
Developing climate-resilient housing (structural) while integrating insurance schemes (non-structural).
This integrated strategy ensures that communities are protected both in the short term and in the long run.
Global and Local Applications
Adaptation measures vary by region:
Low-lying nations like Bangladesh rely on raised housing, flood shelters, and community disaster planning.
Mediterranean countries increasingly use drought-resistant crops and water-saving irrigation.
Urban centres such as Rotterdam integrate flood barriers with urban planning and green infrastructure.
Internationally, frameworks like NAPAs help vulnerable countries access funding and technical expertise, ensuring that adaptation is not limited to wealthier nations.
Challenges to Implementation
Despite progress, adaptation faces barriers:
Financial constraints in developing countries.
Limited technical capacity and weak governance structures.
Unequal distribution of resources, raising issues of climate justice.
Uncertainty in climate projections complicates long-term planning.
These challenges emphasise the importance of international cooperation, local participation, and adaptive governance.
FAQ
The choice depends on economic resources, governance capacity, and the urgency of climate threats. Wealthier nations often adopt structural strategies due to available funding and technology.
Non-structural strategies are more accessible for developing nations because they rely on regulation, community action, and education rather than expensive infrastructure. Local geography and cultural values also shape the balance between the two approaches.
NAPAs are specifically designed for least-developed countries to identify urgent, short-term adaptation needs.
They differ from broader national policies because:
They prioritise immediate action rather than long-term planning.
They are linked to international funding mechanisms through the UNFCCC.
They are focused on building resilience in vulnerable communities with limited resources.
Structural measures often require ongoing investment to remain effective. Sea walls and flood barriers can weaken over time and demand expensive maintenance.
Other challenges include:
Technological obsolescence as climate impacts intensify.
Environmental side effects, such as habitat disruption.
Unequal protection if defences prioritise urban over rural areas.
Non-structural approaches encourage behavioural change, governance, and education, which do not rely on constant financial input.
They adapt flexibly to evolving climate risks, unlike rigid infrastructure. For example, updating building codes or zoning regulations can address new threats without requiring large-scale construction projects.
Yes, conflicts can occur when structural solutions encourage behaviour that undermines non-structural goals.
For instance, constructing flood defences may lead to increased development in high-risk zones, contradicting zoning restrictions. This highlights the need for integrated planning that balances physical protection with regulatory frameworks.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Define structural adaptation and give one example relevant to climate change.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly defining structural adaptation: a physical or engineered intervention designed to reduce risks from climate change.
1 mark for giving a relevant example, e.g., flood defences, desalination plants, movable infrastructure.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how both structural and non-structural adaptation strategies can work together to reduce the impacts of climate change on human societies.
Mark scheme:
Up to 2 marks for outlining structural strategies: e.g., flood barriers, desalination, movable infrastructure.
Up to 2 marks for outlining non-structural strategies: e.g., drought-resistant crops, vaccination, zoning laws, building codes, NAPAs.
1 mark for explaining how combining them creates a more effective or resilient approach (e.g., flood barriers supported by zoning laws; desalination supported by water conservation policies).
