AP Syllabus focus:
‘American Indian activists challenged federal policy and sought greater sovereignty, legal rights, and recognition of treaty obligations.’
American Indian activism grew substantially during the 1960s and 1970s as Indigenous communities pressed for sovereignty, demanded respect for treaties, and mobilised against long-standing injustices. Their efforts reshaped policy debates, gained national visibility, and reasserted Indigenous political power.
The Historical Roots of Modern American Indian Activism
American Indian activism in this era built on earlier twentieth-century organising but gained strength from postwar social movements emphasising equality and self-determination. Many Indigenous communities faced entrenched poverty, inconsistent federal support, and discriminatory policies.
Termination and Relocation Policies
In the 1950s, federal termination policy sought to end the special legal status of tribes and dissolve federal-tribal relationships.
Termination Policy: A federal initiative aimed at ending tribal sovereignty, dissolving reservations, and assimilating Indigenous peoples into mainstream American society.
These policies, combined with relocation programmes that pushed Indigenous people toward urban areas, created widespread economic hardship while weakening tribal governance structures.
The Rise of Red Power
By the 1960s, Indigenous activism coalesced into a broader Red Power movement that demanded sovereignty, cultural revitalisation, and treaty enforcement. Red Power drew inspiration from African American, Chicano, and anti-colonial movements worldwide, emphasising unity and grassroots mobilisation.
Key Principles of Red Power
Activists advanced several core ideas:
• Sovereignty, meaning the inherent authority of Indigenous nations to govern themselves
• Treaty rights, rooted in legally binding agreements with the federal government
• Cultural autonomy, including language preservation and spiritual traditions
• Community control, particularly over education, social services, and land use
Major Organisations and Strategies
American Indian Movement (AIM)
Founded in 1968 in Minneapolis, AIM emerged as a major force in defending Indigenous rights, particularly urban Native communities targeted by police discrimination. It used confrontational tactics to highlight federal failures, while drawing media attention to persistent injustices.
AIM’s strategies blended direct action with legal and political advocacy.
Direct Action: A form of protest in which activists take immediate, public steps—such as occupations or marches—to demand change without relying solely on formal political channels.
These approaches helped shift national consciousness and forced policymakers to address Indigenous concerns.
Other Indigenous Activist Groups
While AIM gained visibility, many local and regional groups also organised around fishing rights, land repatriation, and cultural preservation. Their efforts reflected the diversity of Indigenous nations and the importance of region-specific struggles.
High-Profile Protests and Occupations
The Occupation of Alcatraz (1969–1971)
One of the most iconic events of the period was the occupation of Alcatraz Island by the group Indians of All Tribes.
This photograph shows members of Indians of All Tribes during the 1969–71 occupation of Alcatraz. The “Indian Land” graffiti underscores their challenge to federal neglect and treaty violations. The image illustrates how Indigenous activists used symbolic spaces to call national attention to demands for sovereignty. Source.
Activists argued that unused federal land should revert to Indigenous ownership under treaty principles.
• The occupation lasted 19 months
• It drew international media attention
• It linked treaty violations to contemporary inequalities
Although the occupation ended without formal policy concessions, it inspired widespread activism and signalled a revival of Indigenous political consciousness.
The Trail of Broken Treaties (1972)
In 1972, Indigenous activists organised a cross-country caravan known as the Trail of Broken Treaties, culminating in a protest in Washington, D.C., and the occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) building.
This image depicts American Indian Movement protestors outside the Bureau of Indian Affairs during the Trail of Broken Treaties. Their occupation of federal space highlighted broken treaties and longstanding federal neglect. It demonstrates how activists used national protest to pressure policymakers. Source.
Their Twenty-Point Position Paper demanded reforms to honour treaty rights, improve housing and education, and restructure the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA).
The event exposed deep federal neglect but also prompted some reassessment of Indian policy within Congress and the executive branch.
Wounded Knee Occupation (1973)
In 1973, AIM activists and Oglala Lakota residents occupied the town of Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge Reservation, leading to a seventy-one-day armed standoff with federal authorities.
This photograph shows AIM members and supporters during negotiations at Wounded Knee in 1973. The visible weapon reflects the tense and dangerous nature of the occupation. Although broader than the syllabus, it effectively captures the gravity of Indigenous struggles for sovereignty. Source.
While controversial, the occupation forced public discussion of sovereignty and treaty responsibilities, reinforcing Indigenous claims to self-determination.
Legal and Political Gains
Policy Shifts Toward Self-Determination
By the mid-1970s, federal policy began shifting away from termination toward self-determination, partly in response to grassroots activism. New legislation affirmed tribal authority over education, land management, and government programmes.
Self-Determination: The principle that Indigenous nations have the right to govern their internal affairs and make decisions about their land, culture, and political institutions.
This shift marked a reversal of decades of assimilationist policy.
Land and Resource Rights
Several court cases strengthened tribal claims to land and resource control.
• Fishing rights cases in the Pacific Northwest reaffirmed treaty guarantees
• Land claims in Maine and Alaska recognised breaches of federal agreements
• Compensation settlements provided financial resources for tribal development
These legal victories demonstrated the power of combining activism with litigation to force federal accountability.
Education, Culture, and Community Control
Expanding Indigenous Education
Indigenous schools and cultural programmes expanded through federal grants and tribal initiatives. Activists emphasised culturally relevant curricula, Indigenous languages, and community control over educational decision-making.
Cultural Revitalisation
Protests helped fuel renewed pride in Indigenous identities, traditions, and spiritual practices. Cultural revitalisation became both a political tool and a source of community resilience amid ongoing struggles for sovereignty and justice.
FAQ
A combination of persistent poverty, broken treaty obligations, and decades of federal neglect encouraged activists to shift toward more direct and visible methods.
Relocation policies had also concentrated Indigenous populations in cities, where police discrimination and limited economic opportunities intensified frustration.
These structural pressures convinced many that traditional lobbying alone was insufficient to achieve sovereignty or reform.
Urbanisation created new networks of Indigenous people who shared common experiences of discrimination outside reservation life.
These networks facilitated organising efforts, giving rise to groups focused on police brutality, unemployment, and cultural loss.
AIM emerged in this environment, shaped by urban activism and informed by the concerns of displaced communities.
Treaties provided a legally binding foundation for many of the rights activists sought to reclaim, including land use, fishing rights, and political autonomy.
They also offered a framework for challenging federal actions in court, giving activists a powerful legal route alongside protest.
The emphasis on treaties helped unify diverse tribes under a shared historical and legal claim.
Television and print coverage of protests such as Alcatraz and Wounded Knee brought Indigenous issues to a national audience for the first time in decades.
This exposure generated sympathy but also controversy, which increased public debate over federal responsibilities.
Greater visibility also pressured policymakers who feared domestic and international criticism.
Indigenous nations varied in culture, geography, and political priorities, making sustained national coordination difficult.
Some communities preferred negotiation to confrontation, while others embraced more militant approaches.
Additionally, federal surveillance and infiltration efforts undermined trust within activist organisations, complicating long-term unity.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify one reason why the occupation of Alcatraz (1969–1971) became a turning point in American Indian activism, and briefly explain how it influenced later protests.
Mark Scheme (2 marks total):
• 1 mark for identifying a valid reason (e.g., national media attention, symbolic reclamation of federal land, unifying effect on activists, challenge to federal neglect).
• 1 mark for explaining its influence (e.g., inspired later actions such as the Trail of Broken Treaties and Wounded Knee; encouraged broader Indigenous mobilisation; strengthened demands for treaty enforcement).
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how American Indian activists sought to achieve greater sovereignty between 1965 and 1975. In your answer, refer to both direct action and legal or political strategies.
Mark Scheme (5 marks total):
• 1 mark for describing direct action such as occupations (Alcatraz, BIA building, Wounded Knee) or marches.
• 1 mark for explaining how direct action raised national awareness or pressured the federal government.
• 1 mark for identifying legal strategies (e.g., treaty rights cases, fishing rights litigation, land claims).
• 1 mark for explaining how these legal actions strengthened sovereignty or upheld treaty obligations.
• 1 mark for discussing political strategies such as lobbying for self-determination legislation or restructuring the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
