The Constitutional Monarchy period witnessed transformative reforms, mounting opposition, and escalating conflicts that ultimately undermined Louis XVI’s fragile compromise between monarchy and revolution.
Reforms by the National Assembly
Church Nationalisation and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
One of the most controversial and impactful reforms was the nationalisation of church property. Facing severe financial shortfalls, the National Assembly declared all church lands to be ‘national property’ in November 1789, effectively placing enormous wealth at the state’s disposal. These ‘biens nationaux’ were sold to fund the government and reduce debt.
In July 1790, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was enacted, restructuring the Catholic Church in France:
Bishops and parish priests were to be elected by citizens, undermining papal authority.
Clergy salaries were to be paid by the state.
Many traditional church privileges were abolished.
This policy deeply divided the French population, creating ‘juring’ priests (those who swore loyalty to the Constitution) and ‘non-juring’ or refractory clergy (those who refused). It alienated devout Catholics, especially in rural areas, and fuelled widespread discontent.
Political and Judicial Changes
The Assembly pursued wide-ranging political and judicial reforms to replace absolutism with constitutional rule:
A unicameral Legislative Assembly was established to make laws, restricting the king’s power to a suspensive veto.
France was reorganised into 83 départements, standardising administration and eradicating old provincial privileges.
The judiciary was completely revamped: seigneural courts were abolished, and a uniform court system was introduced with elected judges and trial by jury.
Torture and arbitrary imprisonment (lettres de cachet) were abolished, upholding the rights of citizens under a written constitution.
These changes aimed to construct a fairer and more rational political order, inspired by Enlightenment principles.
Economic and Social Reforms
Land Redistribution
The sale of nationalised church lands enabled members of the bourgeoisie and more prosperous peasants to purchase property, breaking up large ecclesiastical estates. However, the poorest peasants often lacked the means to benefit, perpetuating some rural inequalities.
Taxation
The new regime restructured the tax system, seeking equality and efficiency:
Feudal dues were formally abolished by the August Decrees and later confirmed in legislation, eliminating seigneurial obligations.
The hated gabelle (salt tax) was abolished.
Taxes on land and property were standardised, ensuring that all, including nobles and clergy, contributed proportionally.
Despite these aims, new indirect taxes were introduced to compensate for revenue losses, causing fresh grievances among the lower classes.
Guild Removal
In 1791, the Le Chapelier Law banned guilds and workers’ associations, aiming to promote free enterprise and remove medieval labour restrictions. While this benefited entrepreneurs and reflected liberal economic thought, it angered urban artisans and workers by eliminating protections for wages and working conditions.
Opposition to Change
Émigrés and Royalists
Not everyone welcomed reform. Nobles and clergy, fearing loss of status and property, fled France in growing numbers, becoming émigrés. They lobbied European monarchies for intervention to restore the Ancien Régime.
Royalists within France remained loyal to Louis XVI, distrusting the Assembly’s radical measures and fearing social upheaval. They organised political resistance and conspiracy, exacerbating national divisions.
The Flight to Varennes (1791)
In June 1791, Louis XVI and his family attempted to escape Paris in disguise and join royalist forces near the border. This dramatic Flight to Varennes failed when they were recognised and captured. The king’s attempted flight shattered trust in the monarchy:
Many saw it as proof of treason and the king’s rejection of the constitutional settlement.
Calls for a republic intensified among radical elements.
This event irreversibly damaged Louis’s reputation and emboldened revolutionary leaders to push for more radical change.
Key Events: Champs de Mars Massacre and Political Clubs
Champs de Mars Massacre
In July 1791, after the king’s failed flight, the radical Cordeliers Club and other activists demanded the deposition of Louis XVI. On 17 July, a massive demonstration gathered on the Champs de Mars to sign a petition calling for the king’s abdication.
Fearing insurrection, the National Guard under Lafayette fired on the unarmed crowd, killing dozens. This Champs de Mars massacre:
Marked the first significant split between moderate constitutional monarchists and radical republicans.
Showed the Assembly’s willingness to suppress popular dissent to preserve order.
Drove radicals underground, where they would regroup and gain strength.
Rise of Political Clubs
Political debate and activism thrived through the emergence of influential clubs:
The Jacobins, initially moderate constitutionalists, became increasingly radicalised and central to revolutionary politics.
The Cordeliers Club, more populist and militant, championed direct democracy and street agitation.
Other local clubs spread revolutionary propaganda and coordinated political action nationwide.
These clubs were vital in mobilising public opinion, spreading revolutionary ideas, and pressuring the Assembly to adopt more radical measures.
Impact of War and Radicalisation
Declaration of War and Its Consequences
In April 1792, France declared war on Austria, later joined by Prussia. Many revolutionaries supported war to unify the nation and spread revolutionary ideals abroad.
However, the war had destabilising effects:
Early military defeats and fears of foreign invasion stirred paranoia about internal enemies, including the king and royalists.
The king’s veto of emergency measures to deal with the crisis reinforced suspicions of his collusion with foreign powers.
Economic turmoil worsened, with rising prices, food shortages, and inflation causing widespread hardship.
Radicalisation of Politics
These pressures intensified the revolutionary atmosphere:
Radical leaders like Robespierre and the Jacobins gained influence by attacking moderates and calling for the abolition of the monarchy.
The popular movement, especially the sans-culottes, demanded decisive action against perceived traitors and greater equality.
Growing distrust of the king led directly to demands for his dethronement, paving the way for the monarchy’s collapse in August 1792.
Through its sweeping reforms, bitter opposition, and the strains of war, the Constitutional Monarchy period laid the foundation for the revolution’s radical phase and the eventual execution of Louis XVI.
FAQ
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy profoundly altered local religious life and strained relations between communities and revolutionary officials. Many rural communities trusted their parish priests more than distant state officials. When priests refused the oath, villagers often supported them over the new ‘juring’ priests sent by the Assembly. This caused bitter local disputes, boycotts of church services led by constitutional clergy, and sometimes outright violence. In regions like Brittany and the Vendée, the forced imposition of new priests was seen as an attack on local tradition and faith, sowing seeds of future rebellion. Moreover, refractory priests operated in secret, conducting clandestine masses, which undermined the state’s control and showcased its limited reach in rural areas. The Assembly’s harsh measures against non-jurors—such as exile or imprisonment—deepened resentment. Overall, the reform meant that instead of strengthening loyalty to the revolutionary government, it drove a wedge between authorities and conservative communities, making enforcement of other reforms more challenging.
The National Assembly abolished feudal dues to dismantle the legal and economic foundation of the Ancien Régime and to appease widespread peasant discontent. Many peasants had long resented paying dues to nobles for rights like milling grain or using communal ovens. The ‘Great Fear’ of 1789, marked by peasant uprisings against feudal lords, pressured the Assembly to act decisively. On the night of 4 August 1789, nobles dramatically renounced feudal privileges, but translating this promise into practice proved complex. Legally, peasants were expected to compensate landlords for lost dues through redemption payments, which few could afford. This ambiguity led to confusion and conflict: peasants often refused to pay any remaining dues, while landlords demanded compensation. Local courts struggled to enforce agreements. Many nobles fled as émigrés, complicating settlements further. The incomplete abolition caused ongoing friction in the countryside, with disputes lingering until later revolutionary governments nullified the remaining feudal claims without payment, finally ending centuries-old obligations.
The Le Chapelier Law of 1791 was designed to promote economic liberalism by banning guilds, trade unions, and workers’ collective action. It prohibited strikes and any form of worker association, asserting that citizens could only defend their interests individually. While aligning with Enlightenment principles of free enterprise and equality before the law, the law had profound consequences for urban workers. Many artisans and labourers lost traditional protections regulating wages and working conditions. In an era of rising prices and food scarcity, this fuelled deep frustration and alienation from moderate revolutionary leaders. Workers found themselves unable to organise for fair wages or conditions, driving them towards more radical political groups who promised social and economic justice. The sans-culottes, representing urban labourers, increasingly rejected the constitutional monarchy’s moderate policies and demanded more direct democracy and economic controls. Consequently, the Le Chapelier Law inadvertently strengthened the alliance between radical clubs and the working poor, contributing to the monarchy’s loss of urban support.
The Legislative Assembly, which convened in October 1791, replaced the National Assembly but differed notably in structure and membership due to a self-denying ordinance: no member of the National Assembly could sit in the new body. This rule aimed to prevent entrenched power but deprived the new Assembly of experienced lawmakers. Consequently, the Legislative Assembly was dominated by fresh faces, often with less practical political skill. Politically, it contained three main factions: the conservative Feuillants, who supported a constitutional monarchy; the moderate Girondins, who leaned towards more aggressive revolutionary action and favoured war; and the radical Jacobins, who increasingly called for a republic. In practice, the Legislative Assembly struggled with factionalism, external threats, and internal insurrection. Its relationship with Louis XVI was fraught, especially as suspicions of royal treason grew. Unlike the National Assembly, which had focused on establishing the constitutional framework, the Legislative Assembly’s role quickly shifted towards crisis management amid war, rising radicalism, and mounting calls to abolish the monarchy entirely.
Propaganda and revolutionary newspapers were crucial in shaping public opinion and sustaining political engagement during the Constitutional Monarchy. Revolutionary journalists like Jean-Paul Marat, Camille Desmoulins, and Jacques Hébert used pamphlets and newspapers to expose corruption, criticise moderates, and rally popular support for radical measures. Papers such as Marat’s ‘L’Ami du Peuple’ denounced aristocratic conspiracies and accused the monarchy of betrayal, feeding public paranoia about counter-revolution. These publications made politics accessible to ordinary citizens, informing and inflaming debates in cafés, clubs, and the streets. They often exaggerated threats and painted royalists and émigrés as traitors colluding with foreign enemies. Propaganda also glorified the virtue of the sans-culottes and the purity of radical clubs like the Jacobins. This media landscape intensified polarisation, weakened trust in moderate leaders, and fuelled street protests. Moreover, newspapers spread news rapidly across France, helping coordinate revolutionary activity and protests far from Paris. Thus, the vibrant and often inflammatory revolutionary press played a decisive role in the monarchy’s discrediting and the spread of radical republican ideas.
Practice Questions
To what extent did the Civil Constitution of the Clergy undermine the Constitutional Monarchy, 1789–1792?
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy seriously weakened the Constitutional Monarchy by alienating devout Catholics and causing deep religious divisions. By forcing clergy to swear loyalty to the state over the Pope, the National Assembly lost support from rural communities. Resistance from refractory priests fuelled counter-revolutionary sentiment and widespread distrust. This religious fracture eroded the monarchy’s stability, as Louis XVI’s perceived sympathy for the church’s traditional authority compounded suspicions of royal betrayal. Combined with his failed reforms and unpopular actions, this measure accelerated radicalisation and undermined the fragile balance between monarchy and revolutionary government.
Explain how the war against Austria contributed to the radicalisation of French politics during the Constitutional Monarchy.
The war against Austria intensified France’s internal instability and radicalised its politics by exposing the monarchy’s unreliability. Early military defeats sparked paranoia about foreign invasion and royal collusion. Louis XVI’s vetoes of emergency decrees deepened public suspicion of treason, fuelling republican calls. Rising food prices, inflation, and army setbacks heightened popular anger, empowering radical political clubs like the Jacobins. The sans-culottes mobilised in the streets demanding stronger action. Thus, the war not only united revolutionaries against external threats but also discredited moderate constitutional monarchists, paving the way for the monarchy’s collapse and the rise of a republic.
