The creation of the First French Republic transformed France’s political landscape and triggered intense internal conflict, radicalisation, and revolutionary power struggles.
The Establishment of the First French Republic
Following the collapse of the constitutional monarchy in August 1792, France found itself without a clear form of government. In September 1792, the newly elected National Convention met for the first time. Dominated by radical deputies, the Convention’s first significant act was to abolish the monarchy and proclaim the French Republic on 22 September 1792. This radical break from centuries of monarchical tradition symbolised the triumph of revolutionary republicanism and the rejection of royal authority.
The new Republic, however, faced immediate challenges. Internally, France was divided by revolutionary and counter-revolutionary sentiment; externally, European monarchies saw the execution of a king and birth of a republic as a direct threat to their own thrones.
Debates Over the King’s Trial
One of the National Convention’s most divisive issues was the fate of Louis XVI, now stripped of his title and addressed as ‘Citizen Capet’. The king’s correspondence and actions, particularly the failed flight to Varennes and collusion with foreign powers, fuelled suspicions of treason.
Arguments For and Against Execution
Jacobins, led by Robespierre, argued for immediate execution without appeal, seeing the king’s death as essential to cement the Republic and deter royalist conspiracies.
Girondins, although republicans, preferred a trial and potential exile, fearing that execution would inflame domestic unrest and provoke further war with Europe.
The trial concluded with overwhelming votes declaring Louis guilty of conspiracy against the state and crimes against liberty. On 17 January 1793, the Convention voted narrowly in favour of execution.
Execution of Louis XVI: Reasons and Consequences
On 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was executed by guillotine in the Place de la Révolution, Paris. His death had profound effects both within France and across Europe.
Reasons for Execution
Securing the Revolution: Revolutionary leaders believed that the monarchy must be eliminated to prevent any chance of restoration.
Deterring Counter-Revolution: The king’s execution signalled to royalists and foreign powers that the Republic would not negotiate or compromise its principles.
Symbolic Act: Ending the monarchy was seen as necessary to realise the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Consequences
Radicalisation: The execution intensified radical politics and deepened divisions among revolutionaries.
War with Europe: European monarchies, horrified by regicide, united against France, strengthening the First Coalition.
Internal Unrest: Many in rural and conservative areas, still loyal to the king or the church, were outraged, feeding uprisings like the Vendée revolt.
Outbreak of Internal and External Conflict
The Republic’s birth coincided with expanding wars and violent uprisings that threatened its survival.
War Against European Monarchies
After Louis’ execution, Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Spain joined Austria and Prussia in the First Coalition, determined to crush the revolutionary threat.
France declared war on Britain and the Netherlands in February 1793.
France faced military defeats on several fronts, exposing the Republic to foreign invasion.
These wars drained resources, fostered panic in Paris, and justified emergency measures by radical leaders.
The Vendée Uprising
In March 1793, discontent boiled over in the Vendée, a deeply Catholic and royalist region in western France.
Causes:
Hatred of anti-clerical reforms and civil constitution of the clergy.
Resentment of the mass conscription decree demanding 300,000 men for the war.
Loyalty to the monarchy and traditional local leadership.
Events:
Rebels, called the Catholic and Royal Army, seized towns and confronted republican forces.
The revolt quickly escalated into a brutal civil war marked by atrocities on both sides.
Federalist Revolts
The Republic also faced revolts from Federalists—moderates who opposed the growing power of radical Parisian factions.
Major cities like Lyon, Marseilles, and Bordeaux rose in rebellion against the dominance of the Paris Commune and the Jacobin-led Convention.
Federalists demanded a more decentralised government and protection from radical persecution.
Suppressing these revolts required harsh measures, contributing to the spiral of violence that culminated in the Terror.
Political Power Struggle: Jacobins vs Girondins
Amid external threats and internal revolts, political infighting in Paris intensified.
The Girondins
Background: The Girondins were prominent revolutionaries from the provinces. They supported republicanism but resisted Parisian radicalism and mob influence.
Policies: They opposed the dominance of the Paris Commune and feared the sans-culottes’ influence.
Decline: As military crises and internal revolts worsened, Girondins were blamed for treachery and weakness.
The Jacobins
Background: Led by Maximilien Robespierre, the Jacobins allied with radical sans-culottes and favoured strong central authority to save the Republic.
Radical Measures: They demanded vigorous action against traitors, hoarders, and enemies of the Revolution.
Public Support: The Parisian poor and revolutionary clubs backed the Jacobins, giving them street power to challenge their rivals.
Fall of the Girondins
In May–June 1793, mass demonstrations and threats from armed sans-culottes forced the Convention to expel leading Girondins.
Prominent Girondin deputies were arrested or fled; some were executed later.
This purge eliminated moderate voices, clearing the path for Jacobin dominance.
Rise of Robespierre
Robespierre’s influence soared as he became the moral and political voice of the Republic.
He joined the Committee of Public Safety (CPS), the executive body charged with defending France.
Robespierre’s leadership laid the groundwork for the Reign of Terror, where revolutionary zeal and state control reached unprecedented levels.
By late 1793, France was locked in a desperate struggle on multiple fronts: foreign armies at the borders, civil war raging in the countryside, and revolutionary factions battling for control in Paris. The establishment of the Republic had unleashed a wave of radicalisation and conflict that would culminate in the Terror, shaping the fate of the Revolution and the future of France.
FAQ
The National Convention was markedly more radical and decisive than the earlier Legislative Assembly. Whereas the Legislative Assembly (1791–1792) still operated under the framework of a constitutional monarchy and often hesitated to act decisively against the king and aristocracy, the National Convention emerged in the wake of the monarchy’s collapse and the radicalisation of Paris. It was elected by universal male suffrage, reflecting a broader base of support, particularly from the sans-culottes and radical clubs. Unlike its predecessor, the Convention had the explicit mandate to draft a republican constitution and to oversee the revolutionary war effort. Its deputies abolished the monarchy outright, established the Republic, and implemented extreme measures to suppress both internal and external enemies. The Convention’s willingness to use terror, its endorsement of the Committee of Public Safety as a de facto executive, and its harsh suppression of dissent highlight how it institutionalised radical republicanism in a way the more moderate Legislative Assembly never did.
Propaganda and revolutionary symbols were vital in legitimising the Republic and mobilising popular support during a time of crisis. Revolutionary newspapers, pamphlets, and political clubs flooded France with radical ideas, stirring fervour against perceived enemies and reinforcing republican identity. Symbols such as the Phrygian cap, the tricolour cockade, and the personification of Liberty and the Republic appeared on banners, clothing, and official documents to visually unify the populace. Public festivals and civic ceremonies celebrated revolutionary milestones like the abolition of the monarchy and the king’s execution, helping to forge a collective sense of purpose. The renaming of institutions, streets, and even the revolutionary calendar further detached France from its monarchical and religious past. These efforts were not superficial; they instilled republican values and justified harsh measures against traitors and royalists. Propaganda also painted the war against Europe as a battle between liberty and tyranny, motivating mass conscription and sacrifices needed to defend the fledgling Republic.
Dire economic conditions played a significant role in shaping public attitudes towards the Republic between 1792 and 1793. Wartime demands and internal instability disrupted agriculture and trade, leading to food shortages, rising prices, and widespread hunger among urban workers and rural peasants. The poor economic situation intensified anger towards hoarders, speculators, and perceived counter-revolutionaries profiting from scarcity. This environment strengthened support for radical measures promoted by the Jacobins, such as price controls and requisitioning grain to feed Paris. Economic hardship also pushed the sans-culottes to demand harsher action against enemies of the Revolution, indirectly fuelling the push for the Terror. Furthermore, the burden of conscription and new revolutionary taxes strained rural communities, contributing to uprisings like the Vendée revolt. Despite these tensions, the Republic’s promises of equality, land redistribution, and punishment of the wealthy elite helped maintain loyalty among many who hoped the new regime would deliver social and economic justice in the long term.
Revolutionary clubs, notably the Jacobins and the Cordeliers, were crucial engines of political agitation and pressure during the creation of the Republic. They provided venues for debate, political education, and coordination among radical deputies and activists. The Jacobin Club, with branches across France, became the nerve centre for radical republicanism, shaping public opinion and lobbying deputies to adopt uncompromising policies. Club members often overlapped with key leaders in the National Convention, ensuring that club resolutions influenced legislative action. Outside the Convention, clubs stirred the sans-culottes and urban mobs to demonstrate, threaten or even attack political opponents. The Cordeliers, more radical than the Jacobins, directly mobilised the Parisian poor, playing a part in insurrections like the expulsion of the Girondins. Clubs also acted as watchdogs, reporting suspected treason and enforcing revolutionary orthodoxy. This symbiotic relationship between clubs, radical journalists, and militant sections of Paris ensured that the Republic developed under strong popular and radical pressure.
Foreign émigrés, comprising nobles, royalists, and clergy who fled France after the Revolution’s outbreak, significantly influenced the Republic’s internal and external conflicts. Many émigrés settled in neighbouring monarchies like Austria, Prussia, and later Britain, becoming vocal advocates for intervention to restore the monarchy. They formed counter-revolutionary armies, such as the Army of Condé, which fought alongside foreign coalitions against republican forces. Inside France, their plots and communications with royalist sympathisers fuelled fears of internal betrayal, reinforcing paranoia and radical policies. The Convention viewed émigrés as traitors and passed harsh legislation—any émigré caught returning faced execution, and their lands were often confiscated to fund the war effort. Their presence strengthened European resolve to maintain a united front against revolutionary France, as monarchies feared revolutionary contagion and the spread of republican ideas. Consequently, the émigré threat legitimised the Jacobins’ calls for emergency powers, mass conscription, and the use of terror to root out conspiracies within France’s borders.
Practice Questions
Assess the reasons for the execution of Louis XVI in January 1793.
The execution of Louis XVI stemmed from his perceived betrayal of the Revolution, notably his attempted flight to Varennes and secret dealings with foreign monarchies. Revolutionaries believed that only his death could secure the Republic and prevent royalist plots. Radical leaders like the Jacobins argued that executing the king would unify France and deter enemies. Moreover, the escalating war with Europe and internal unrest pressured deputies to eliminate any symbol of monarchical restoration. Ultimately, his execution was a decisive, symbolic act to demonstrate the Revolution’s resolve and to remove any lingering threat of a return to absolutism.
‘The outbreak of internal revolts posed a greater threat to the Republic than foreign wars.’ Assess the validity of this view.
Internal revolts like the Vendée uprising and Federalist revolts critically endangered the Republic by challenging its authority within France and diverting resources from external wars. The scale of these revolts threatened national unity and provoked brutal repression, fuelling radicalisation and the Terror. However, foreign wars were equally severe, exposing France to invasion and requiring mass conscription and total mobilisation. While internal conflicts destabilised revolutionary government, foreign threats ultimately justified emergency powers and centralised control. Overall, both were significant but internal revolts directly undermined revolutionary legitimacy and cohesion, arguably posing a more immediate existential threat than the external wars alone.
