Mussolini’s foreign policy between 1936 and 1940 shifted dramatically towards Nazi Germany, driven by ambition, isolation, and ideological affinity, culminating in Italy’s entry into the Second World War.
Mussolini’s Shift in Foreign Policy
From Independent Imperialism to Axis Partnership
Until 1935, Mussolini’s foreign policy focused on asserting Italian prestige and building a new Roman Empire independently. However, the Abyssinian Crisis (1935–36) marked a turning point. Italy’s brutal invasion of Ethiopia led to League of Nations sanctions, pushing Mussolini closer to Hitler, who had supported him diplomatically.
The Rome-Berlin Axis (1936)
In October 1936, Mussolini and Hitler formalised their growing understanding with the Rome-Berlin Axis, a term Mussolini coined to describe the new alignment of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany as the central powers of Europe.
Key features of the Axis:
It was initially vague and more rhetorical than binding.
It symbolised Italy’s pivot away from Britain and France towards Germany.
Mussolini saw it as an opportunity to gain a strong ally while retaining autonomy.
The Axis improved diplomatic coordination but Italy remained wary of German dominance, especially regarding Austria.
The Anti-Comintern Pact (1937)
Following the Axis, Italy joined Germany and Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact in November 1937.
Purpose: To oppose the spread of Communism internationally, targeting the Soviet Union.
Impact: Cemented Italy’s alignment with the authoritarian bloc and further alienated Western democracies.
It was an ideological and diplomatic signal of solidarity rather than a concrete military commitment.
Mussolini hoped this alliance would enhance Italy’s prestige and deter Soviet influence, while also binding Hitler closer to Italian interests.
Italy’s Involvement in the Spanish Civil War
Motivation to Intervene
When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936, Mussolini saw an opportunity to:
Combat Communism by supporting General Franco’s Nationalists.
Expand Italian influence in the Mediterranean.
Demonstrate Italy’s military strength and reassert itself as a great power.
Unlike Germany’s more limited air and logistical support, Italy committed significantly larger resources.
Nature of Italian Involvement
Sent approximately 70,000–80,000 troops, plus aircraft, tanks, and naval forces.
The Corpo Truppe Volontarie (CTV) represented Italy’s principal fighting force.
Provided Franco with vital manpower and material assistance, helping secure Nationalist victory.
Consequences of Intervention
Positive Outcomes for Mussolini:
Strengthened ties with Franco’s regime, ensuring a friendly Spain.
Reinforced Fascist Italy’s anti-Communist credentials.
Boosted the Rome-Berlin Axis through parallel German involvement.
Negative Consequences:
High financial and human costs: over 3,000 Italians killed, heavy military expenditure.
Revealed weaknesses in Italy’s armed forces, notably poor equipment and organisation.
Provoked further tension with Britain and France, deepening Italy’s diplomatic isolation.
Overall, the Spanish Civil War drew Italy deeper into Hitler’s orbit, undermined relations with democracies, and exposed military shortcomings that would later haunt Mussolini.
The Pact of Steel, 1939
Motives for a Stronger Alliance
By the late 1930s, Hitler’s bold moves, including the Anschluss (annexation of Austria) in 1938 and occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, alarmed Mussolini but also made him increasingly dependent on German support.
Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel with Germany in May 1939 due to:
Desire for a binding military alliance to strengthen Italy’s security.
Hope of restraining Hitler’s aggression through formal consultation.
Mussolini’s fear of isolation if Italy failed to commit to Germany.
Terms of the Pact
A full military and political alliance, obliging both states to support each other in the event of war.
Required joint military planning and intelligence sharing.
Contained no exit clause, binding Italy to Germany’s war aims.
Effects and Italian Reactions
Mussolini privately recognised that Italy was militarily unprepared for large-scale war, needing at least three more years to rearm.
Italian military leaders were concerned about the commitment but Mussolini believed refusing Hitler outright would leave Italy vulnerable.
The Pact drastically limited Mussolini’s diplomatic manoeuvrability and entangled Italy in Hitler’s expansionist agenda.
Italy’s Entry into the Second World War
Reasons for Entering the War
Despite deep reservations, Mussolini declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940. His reasons included:
Fear of missing out on territorial gains if Italy remained neutral.
Belief that Germany would quickly defeat France and Britain, making Italian intervention a low-risk venture.
Mussolini’s need to maintain domestic prestige and the image of Italy as a great power.
Many Italian generals and industrialists advised against war, knowing Italy’s weaknesses, but Mussolini prioritised political and ideological considerations over practical realities.
The Context of June 1940
By June 1940, Germany had conquered much of Western Europe and was on the verge of defeating France.
Mussolini hoped to join the victors at the last minute and claim Mediterranean territories.
He called this opportunistic approach “a few thousand dead to sit at the peace table.”
Immediate Effects of Entry
Italy launched poorly prepared offensives against France’s Alpine front and later against British positions in North Africa.
Early military failures embarrassed Mussolini and undermined the myth of Fascist military strength.
Italy’s economy and armed forces were ill-equipped for sustained modern warfare, exposing the gap between Fascist rhetoric and reality.
Long-Term Consequences
Italy’s premature entry into the war:
Locked it into a subordinate role in Hitler’s plans.
Overstretched its limited military and industrial resources.
Sparked discontent at home as military defeats mounted.
Ultimately, Mussolini’s alignment with Nazi Germany, solidified through the Rome-Berlin Axis, Anti-Comintern Pact, and the Pact of Steel, dragged Italy into a disastrous conflict that would contribute to the collapse of the Fascist regime by 1943.
This period shows how Mussolini’s ambition, ideological alignment, and fear of marginalisation pushed Fascist Italy into a binding partnership with Nazi Germany, shaping its fate in the Second World War.
FAQ
Mussolini’s perception of Hitler evolved considerably from scepticism to reluctant admiration and dependency. Initially, Mussolini viewed Hitler as a radical agitator who threatened Italy’s influence in Central Europe, especially regarding Austria. Mussolini distrusted Hitler’s early attempts to absorb Austria, fearing German dominance of the region and a challenge to Italian ambitions. The assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss in 1934 by Austrian Nazis, which Mussolini condemned, nearly caused a rift. However, as Mussolini’s relations with Britain and France soured after the Abyssinian Crisis, he reassessed Hitler’s utility as an ally against international isolation. By the mid-1930s, he started to see ideological common ground in authoritarianism and expansionism. Hitler’s bold moves and apparent success impressed Mussolini, who envied Germany’s swift rearmament and territorial gains. By 1940, Mussolini perceived Hitler as the dominant force in Europe and, despite misgivings about being the junior partner, felt compelled to align closely, believing Germany’s victory was inevitable and necessary for Italy’s imperial ambitions.
Propaganda was crucial in persuading the Italian public to accept closer ties with Nazi Germany, despite historical mistrust of Germany and differing national identities. The Fascist regime portrayed the alliance as a natural union of two strong, modern states united by shared opposition to Communism and decadent democracies like Britain and France. Newspapers, radio broadcasts, and newsreels depicted Hitler as a fellow revolutionary leader reshaping Europe alongside Mussolini. The regime celebrated the Rome-Berlin Axis as a stabilising force protecting Europe from Bolshevism and economic decline. Public ceremonies, military parades, and slogans emphasised the strength and unity of the Axis powers, often downplaying ideological differences and past rivalries. School curricula and youth organisations reinforced this narrative, portraying the alliance as a patriotic duty and a guarantee of Italy’s rightful place among great powers. Propaganda also painted Britain and France as hypocritical imperialists who opposed Italy’s legitimate ambitions, rallying nationalistic sentiment to support the increasingly binding partnership with Germany.
Italy failed to maintain equal influence in the Rome-Berlin relationship primarily due to disparities in military power, economic strength, and strategic leverage. While Mussolini aimed to be an equal partner, Hitler’s Germany quickly outpaced Italy in rearmament and territorial conquests, establishing itself as the dominant Axis power. Germany’s rapid victories and bold foreign policy moves, such as the Anschluss and occupation of Czechoslovakia, sidelined Italian interests and exposed Mussolini’s limited ability to restrain Hitler. Additionally, Italy’s economic weaknesses and slow industrial output made sustained military expansion unrealistic, forcing Mussolini to rely on German support. Diplomatic miscalculations also weakened Italy’s bargaining power; Mussolini often overestimated Italy’s readiness for war and underestimated Hitler’s unilateral tendencies. By signing the Pact of Steel without safeguards, Mussolini further reduced Italy’s autonomy. As the war approached, Hitler kept Mussolini in the dark about critical plans, such as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the USSR, demonstrating the imbalance in trust and strategic control that defined the relationship.
By 1940, Italy’s military preparedness lagged far behind Germany’s, creating a significant imbalance within the alliance. While Germany had undergone a rapid, systematic rearmament program since 1933, producing modern tanks, aircraft, and well-trained divisions, Italy struggled with outdated equipment, poor logistics, and limited industrial capacity. Many Italian divisions were understrength, lacked modern armour, and relied on obsolete artillery and vehicles. The navy was relatively strong but ill-coordinated with land forces, and the air force lacked modern fighters compared to the German Luftwaffe. These shortcomings meant Italy could not contribute meaningfully to Germany’s blitzkrieg campaigns and required German support in multiple theatres. This dependency reinforced Mussolini’s subordinate position and made Italy’s aggressive declarations of war look hollow when met with practical failures. The gap in military capability also emboldened Hitler to pursue his strategies independently, often treating Mussolini more as an auxiliary partner than a genuine co-planner. Italy’s weakness ultimately burdened Germany with the need to rescue or reinforce Italian operations during the war.
Yes, notable factions within Italy, including elements of the military, diplomatic corps, and even segments of the Fascist Party, expressed concern or outright opposition to deepening ties with Nazi Germany. Many Italian generals and senior officers privately doubted the wisdom of binding Italy to Germany’s unpredictable aggression, given Italy’s limited readiness and differing strategic interests. Diplomats, especially older career officials, preferred balancing relations with Britain and France to maintain Italy’s traditional role as a Mediterranean power and feared becoming a German satellite. Some high-ranking Fascists also worried that ideological and racial differences with Nazi Germany could undermine Fascist Italy’s distinct national identity and popular support. Critics argued that alignment risked dragging Italy into a costly European conflict for Germany’s benefit. However, Mussolini’s charismatic authority and tight control over media and political dissent marginalised these voices. While opposition persisted in private, it rarely translated into open resistance, allowing Mussolini to push forward with the alliance largely unchallenged until military disasters forced broader dissent.
Practice Questions
To what extent did Mussolini’s involvement in the Spanish Civil War strengthen Italy’s alignment with Nazi Germany?
Mussolini’s intervention in the Spanish Civil War significantly strengthened Italy’s alignment with Nazi Germany by aligning both regimes in a joint anti-Communist crusade and fostering military cooperation. It demonstrated Italy’s commitment to Fascist solidarity in Europe, deepening ties through shared objectives and operations. However, the intervention also exposed Italy’s military weaknesses and strained resources, highlighting its dependency on Germany. While it forged ideological unity and diplomatic closeness, Mussolini’s policy also reduced his flexibility, binding him more closely to Hitler’s agenda, thereby accelerating Italy’s drift into the Axis sphere and undermining independent foreign policy ambitions.
Explain why Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel in 1939 and assess its impact on Italy’s road to war.
Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel to secure Germany’s alliance amid rising European tensions, hoping to bolster Italy’s security and maintain its influence over Hitler’s ambitions. Fear of isolation and a desire for shared prestige motivated the decision, despite Italy’s military unpreparedness. The pact locked Italy into Hitler’s expansionist plans, leaving Mussolini with little diplomatic freedom. This binding commitment forced Italy into World War II before it was ready, exposing severe economic and military weaknesses. Ultimately, the Pact of Steel made Italy a reluctant but compelled partner in Germany’s war, leading directly to disastrous campaigns and regime collapse.
