The months between March and October 1917 saw the collapse of Dual Power and the Bolsheviks’ strategic move towards seizing control of Russia.
Lenin’s Return and the April Theses
When Lenin returned to Petrograd in April 1917, he dramatically shifted the trajectory of the Bolshevik movement. His return invigorated the party and provided radical direction.
Background: Lenin had been in exile in Switzerland. With German assistance (hoping to destabilise Russia), he travelled in a sealed train back to Petrograd.
April Theses: On his arrival, Lenin delivered the April Theses, a radical programme rejecting cooperation with the Provisional Government and calling for:
Immediate end to the war.
Transfer of power to the soviets.
Nationalisation of land and banks.
Impact on Bolshevik Policy:
The theses shocked even some Bolsheviks, who had supported the idea of supporting the Provisional Government temporarily.
Lenin’s uncompromising stance shifted the Bolsheviks from a minor radical group to an influential force advocating for immediate revolution.
His slogans, especially “Peace, Bread, Land” and “All Power to the Soviets”, resonated with workers and soldiers disillusioned with ongoing war and economic hardship.
The July Days and Decline in Bolshevik Support
In mid-1917, rising tensions erupted into disorder during what became known as the July Days, a turning point that temporarily weakened Bolshevik credibility.
Causes of the July Days
War Weariness: Mounting casualties and poor conditions at the front increased anti-war sentiment.
Economic Strain: Food shortages and industrial strikes intensified unrest in cities.
Growing Radicalism: Workers and soldiers, influenced by Bolshevik propaganda, were impatient with the Provisional Government’s failures.
Events of the July Days
Spontaneous Demonstrations: Between 3–7 July 1917, workers and soldiers in Petrograd demonstrated, demanding the soviets take power.
Bolshevik Involvement: While Bolsheviks attempted to guide the protests, they did not fully control them. Some leaders, including Lenin, hesitated.
Government Response: The Provisional Government, with the support of loyal troops, crushed the demonstrations:
Bolshevik leaders were accused of treason and collaboration with Germany.
Lenin fled to Finland to avoid arrest.
Pravda, the Bolshevik newspaper, was shut down.
Consequences
Decline in Support: Public trust in the Bolsheviks dropped due to allegations of German ties.
Temporary Setback: Key leaders were arrested or forced into hiding, weakening the party’s leadership.
Provisional Government Strengthened: Kerensky, then Minister of War, became Prime Minister and appeared to restore order.
The Kornilov Affair and its Effects
The Kornilov Affair in August 1917 dramatically shifted the political balance, discrediting the Provisional Government and reviving Bolshevik fortunes.
Causes
General Lavr Kornilov, appointed Commander-in-Chief by Kerensky, feared a socialist revolution and believed a strong military dictatorship was necessary to restore order.
Miscommunication and mistrust led Kornilov to believe Kerensky supported a march on Petrograd to crush radicals and secure the capital.
Events
Kornilov ordered troops to advance on Petrograd.
Kerensky, fearing a coup against himself, turned to the Petrograd Soviet for help.
The Soviet and Bolsheviks mobilised workers and the Red Guards to defend the city and persuaded Kornilov’s troops to abandon the march.
Effects on the Provisional Government
Discrediting Kerensky: His handling of Kornilov made him appear weak and indecisive.
Boost for Bolsheviks:
They appeared as defenders of the revolution against counter-revolutionaries.
Bolsheviks gained control of key soviets, including the Petrograd Soviet, which dramatically increased their power base.
Radicalisation: Many workers and soldiers lost faith in the Provisional Government’s ability to protect revolutionary gains.
Trotsky’s Role and the Central Committee
Leon Trotsky emerged as a crucial figure in organising the final push towards Bolshevik control.
Trotsky’s Position
Returned from exile and quickly became chairman of the Petrograd Soviet by September 1917.
His eloquence and organisational skills won widespread support among soldiers and workers.
Central Committee Debates
Timing the Uprising: There was significant debate within the Bolshevik Central Committee about when to seize power.
Lenin urged immediate action, fearing the window of opportunity would close.
Some leaders, including Kamenev and Zinoviev, opposed a premature uprising, fearing civil war.
Trotsky’s Strategy:
Advocated for using the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC), which he controlled, to plan a legal defence of the soviets, providing a legitimate cover for an armed insurrection.
Ensured Red Guards and sympathetic army units were ready to occupy key locations.
Causes, Course, and Significance of the October Revolution
The October Revolution, also called the Bolshevik Revolution, was the culmination of growing unrest and careful planning by Bolshevik leaders.
Causes
Loss of Faith: Widespread disillusionment with the Provisional Government due to its failure to end the war and address land reforms.
Economic Crisis: Strikes, food shortages, and inflation worsened living conditions.
Rising Bolshevik Influence: Control of soviets, the MRC, and widespread support among workers and garrison soldiers.
Leadership and Organisation: Lenin’s determination and Trotsky’s tactical brilliance provided decisive direction.
Course of the Revolution
24–25 October (Old Style):
Red Guards, sailors, and soldiers loyal to the MRC began occupying key sites: bridges, railway stations, and government buildings.
Little resistance was encountered due to lack of loyalist troops.
Storming of the Winter Palace:
The symbolic act occurred on the night of 25 October.
Bolshevik forces entered the palace and arrested the Provisional Government ministers.
Kerensky escaped and fled Petrograd.
All-Russian Congress of Soviets:
Simultaneously, the Congress met and endorsed the transfer of power.
Lenin announced the overthrow of the Provisional Government and establishment of Bolshevik rule.
Significance
Establishment of Soviet Power: Bolsheviks seized control of Petrograd and quickly extended authority to other cities.
One-Party Rule: The revolution marked the beginning of a new political order dominated by the Bolshevik Party.
Inspiration and Civil War: Sparked hopes of world revolution but also triggered civil war between the Red and White forces.
Historiographical Debate: Historians debate whether it was a popular uprising or a carefully orchestrated coup by a disciplined minority.
FAQ
Lenin believed the Provisional Government was fundamentally bourgeois and incapable of delivering the radical transformation required to serve the working class and peasantry. He argued that it continued the imperialist war, failed to redistribute land, and protected capitalist interests. Lenin’s Marxist ideology rejected compromise with liberal elements and instead called for a “dictatorship of the proletariat.” He saw the soviets, councils of workers and soldiers, as the legitimate vehicles of power. His April Theses made it clear that only a second revolution could establish a true socialist state. He feared that delay or compromise would allow counter-revolutionary forces to regain control. Lenin’s insistence on immediate action set the Bolsheviks apart from other socialist factions and positioned them as the only party willing to deliver peace, land reform, and workers’ power. This revolutionary purity not only shaped party policy but also prepared them ideologically and organisationally for the seizure of power in October.
The Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC), formed by the Petrograd Soviet in October 1917 and dominated by Bolsheviks, played a crucial role in planning and executing the revolution. Chaired by Trotsky, it was established ostensibly to defend Petrograd from a German invasion or counter-revolution, giving it legitimacy and popular support. In reality, it became the central command for Bolshevik revolutionary activity. It coordinated Red Guard units, loyal army regiments, and revolutionary sailors to occupy strategic locations such as railway stations, telegraph offices, and bridges. The MRC ensured communication, discipline, and secrecy, allowing a smooth and near-bloodless coup. By placing military control under the Soviet’s authority, the MRC avoided open civil conflict and made the seizure of government buildings, including the Winter Palace, highly efficient. Its dual role—defensive on the surface and revolutionary in execution, allowed the Bolsheviks to gain power without provoking immediate mass resistance, securing control of Petrograd by 25 October.
The Provisional Government failed to enact land reform primarily because it lacked both the will and the means to do so. It claimed that any substantial redistribution of land should wait for the Constituent Assembly, which would create a democratic mandate. However, the delay was interpreted by peasants as inaction. Many rural communities began to seize land independently, often violently, undermining state authority. Additionally, the government was dominated by liberal and moderate socialist elements who feared that radical land redistribution would destabilise the fragile economy and alienate the landed gentry and military officers. Their cautious stance reflected a desire to maintain law and order, but it ultimately backfired. The Bolsheviks exploited this issue by promising immediate land redistribution, which was highly appealing to peasant populations. The failure to address the land question decisively contributed significantly to the erosion of rural support for the Provisional Government and the growth of Bolshevik influence in the countryside.
Bolshevik propaganda was pivotal in winning support from workers, soldiers, and peasants between March and October 1917. It was simple, direct, and tailored to the needs of its target audiences. Slogans such as “Peace, Bread, Land” and “All Power to the Soviets” promised an end to the war, food for the cities, and land redistribution, core issues affecting ordinary Russians. Bolsheviks skilfully used posters, pamphlets, newspapers like Pravda, and speeches to communicate their message. Unlike the Provisional Government, their propaganda did not call for patience or complex constitutional processes but offered immediate solutions. Bolshevik orators like Trotsky and Lenin addressed large crowds, reinforcing the image of the party as dynamic and decisive. They also demonised the Provisional Government, presenting it as incompetent, corrupt, and beholden to bourgeois interests. This persistent messaging gradually shifted public opinion in urban centres, especially Petrograd, and laid the ideological groundwork for the October insurrection.
The Bolsheviks gained majority support in the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets through a combination of persistent agitation, changing political conditions, and the failures of their opponents. Initially a minority in both bodies, they steadily built influence by targeting disaffected workers and soldiers with clear, radical messaging. The continued war, economic collapse, and perceived betrayal by moderate socialists such as the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries eroded support for those groups. The Kornilov Affair was especially pivotal, it exposed the Provisional Government’s vulnerability and made the Bolsheviks appear as the defenders of the revolution. Bolsheviks also worked strategically to win elections within the soviets, particularly after Lenin instructed the party to gain control of these bodies as a prelude to revolution. By October, they had succeeded in securing majorities, giving them the political legitimacy to claim they represented the will of the people when they launched the insurrection. This support was vital for ensuring a largely bloodless takeover.
Practice Questions
Explain the impact of the April Theses on the Bolshevik Party’s strategy between March and October 1917.
Lenin’s April Theses radically transformed the Bolshevik Party’s approach by rejecting cooperation with the Provisional Government and advocating immediate revolution. His slogans, especially “Peace, Bread, Land”, resonated strongly with disillusioned workers and soldiers, boosting Bolshevik support. The theses shifted the party from a marginal group to a powerful revolutionary force. By focusing on transferring power to the soviets and ending the war, Lenin unified the party behind a clear goal. This uncompromising stance laid the groundwork for the strategic planning that enabled the successful seizure of power in October 1917.
Assess the significance of the Kornilov Affair in the downfall of the Provisional Government.
The Kornilov Affair significantly weakened the Provisional Government by exposing its inability to maintain control and undermining Kerensky’s credibility. Kornilov’s failed coup attempt forced Kerensky to rely on the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolsheviks for defence, inadvertently strengthening his opponents. The Bolsheviks gained weapons, legitimacy, and support as defenders of the revolution. Public confidence in the Provisional Government plummeted while Bolshevik influence in the soviets surged. This shift in power enabled the Bolsheviks to prepare effectively for the October Revolution, directly contributing to the government’s collapse and the success of the Bolshevik seizure of power.
