The Bolsheviks strengthened their grip on Russia through decisive decrees, suppression of opposition, victory in civil war, and the creation of a dictatorship by 1924.
Early Bolshevik Decrees and Formation of Sovnarkom
In the immediate aftermath of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks acted swiftly to legitimise their rule and address popular demands:
Decree on Peace (October 1917): Called for an immediate armistice and peace negotiations to end Russia’s involvement in the First World War. This decree aimed to fulfil war-weary Russians’ demands.
Decree on Land (October 1917): Legalised peasant land seizures from landlords and the church, formally transferring land ownership to peasant communities. This addressed a key agrarian demand and won rural support.
Decree on Workers’ Control (November 1917): Gave factory committees authority to oversee management and production, encouraging worker participation but often causing production inefficiency.
Decree on Nationalities (November 1917): Promised autonomy to the various national minorities within the former Russian Empire, attempting to maintain unity in a multi-ethnic state.
To administer this new power, the Bolsheviks established the Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom) in November 1917. This was an executive government body composed entirely of Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin as Chairman, Leon Trotsky as Commissar for Foreign Affairs, and other leading revolutionaries. Sovnarkom ruled by decree, bypassing the need for legislative approval, consolidating executive authority firmly within the party.
Closure of the Constituent Assembly and One-Party Rule
Despite promises of democracy, the Bolsheviks faced challenges to their power. Elections for the Constituent Assembly, Russia’s first democratically elected body, were held in November 1917. The Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) won a clear majority, while the Bolsheviks secured less than a quarter of the seats.
In January 1918, when the Assembly convened, the Bolsheviks forcibly dissolved it after just one day. They argued that the Assembly no longer reflected the will of the people as expressed through the Soviets. By this act, they eliminated parliamentary opposition and justified the transfer of supreme power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, dominated by Bolsheviks and their Left SR allies.
Over the next years, the Bolsheviks suppressed rival parties:
Opposition newspapers were banned.
Rival socialist parties were outlawed or driven underground.
By 1921, only the Communist Party (as the Bolsheviks renamed themselves) was legally permitted. This established a de facto one-party state.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and Withdrawal from the First World War
Ending Russia’s involvement in the devastating First World War was crucial for the Bolsheviks to focus on domestic consolidation. Peace talks with Germany led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918.
Key terms included:
Massive territorial losses: Russia ceded Finland, Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic states, and parts of Belarus — about one-third of its population and agricultural land.
Economic costs: Heavy reparations were imposed, stripping the economy of vital resources.
Despite harsh terms, Lenin saw withdrawal as essential to secure the revolution’s survival, arguing that peace was necessary even at great cost. The treaty caused deep divisions within the party but ultimately freed the Bolsheviks to tackle internal threats.
Causes, Events, and Outcomes of the Civil War
Causes
The Bolshevik seizure of power and the controversial peace treaty provoked widespread opposition. Enemies included:
Whites: A loose alliance of monarchists, conservatives, liberals, and moderate socialists.
Foreign interventionists: Britain, France, the USA, and Japan provided support to the Whites to re-open an Eastern Front against Germany and suppress Bolshevism.
National minorities: Some sought independence from Russian control.
Peasants and Greens: Resisted Bolshevik requisitioning and authoritarian rule.
Events
The Russian Civil War lasted from 1918 to 1921, involving brutal fighting across vast fronts:
The Whites launched offensives from the South, East, and North, but were hampered by poor coordination and unpopular policies.
The Red Army, created in January 1918, was instrumental in Bolshevik success. Leon Trotsky, as Commissar for War, imposed strict discipline, restored conscription, and reintroduced ranks and harsh punishments for desertion.
Trotsky personally directed operations, using armoured trains to move rapidly between fronts, boosting morale and enforcing loyalty.
Control of key cities (Moscow and Petrograd) and the central railway network gave the Reds significant logistical advantages.
Peasant support for the Reds was sometimes pragmatic: the Whites promised to restore land to landlords, alienating rural populations.
By late 1920, major White forces were defeated, though pockets of resistance and nationalist struggles continued into 1921–1923.
Outcomes
The Bolsheviks emerged victorious but at a massive human cost: millions died due to combat, famine, and disease.
The economy was devastated, cities depopulated, and industry ruined.
Victory consolidated Bolshevik authority and eliminated rival political and military threats.
The Red Terror and the Murder of the Tsar
To suppress internal opposition during the Civil War, the Bolsheviks launched the Red Terror in 1918, coordinated by the secret police (Cheka):
The Cheka arrested, tortured, and executed suspected counter-revolutionaries.
Hostages were taken and mass shootings used to deter dissent.
Estimates suggest tens of thousands were killed as part of this political repression.
One symbolic act was the murder of Tsar Nicholas II and his family in July 1918 in Ekaterinburg. The Bolsheviks feared that advancing White forces might use the Romanovs as a rallying figurehead, so they eliminated the royal family to prevent any restoration of monarchy.
The Red Terror was justified as necessary to defend the revolution but laid the foundations for a culture of political repression and violence.
Creation of a Dictatorial Regime by 1924
By the end of the Civil War, the Bolsheviks had built a highly centralised and authoritarian state:
Party control over state institutions: Power flowed from the top of the Communist Party down to local soviets, with real authority residing in the Politburo and Orgburo.
Suppression of internal dissent: The 1921 Ban on Factions forbade organised opposition within the Communist Party itself, silencing critics like the Workers’ Opposition.
Continuation of repressive apparatus: The Cheka, later renamed the GPU, remained a key instrument of surveillance and political policing.
Monopoly on ideology and propaganda: Censorship tightened, education and media were aligned with party doctrine, and opponents were branded as enemies of the people.
Use of coercion and fear: Labour camps (the early Gulag) were established for political prisoners.
By 1924, Lenin’s death left a party accustomed to one-man leadership, extensive censorship, and no tolerance for pluralism. This authoritarian structure enabled Stalin’s rise, as the state mechanisms for suppression were firmly in place.
Through these developments, the Bolsheviks transformed Russia into a one-party dictatorship, justifying repression as necessary for defending socialism in a hostile world. Their consolidation of power fundamentally reshaped Russian society and laid the groundwork for Stalin’s totalitarian rule to come.
FAQ
The Left Socialist Revolutionaries (Left SRs) initially cooperated with the Bolsheviks following the October Revolution, sharing a common goal of revolution and radical change. They were given positions in the early government, with some becoming members of Sovnarkom. Their support helped the Bolsheviks present a broader front of revolutionary legitimacy and secure peasant backing due to the Left SRs’ strong rural support base. However, tensions quickly emerged, especially over the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which the Left SRs vehemently opposed due to the massive territorial concessions. In July 1918, the Left SRs staged an uprising in protest, including the assassination of the German ambassador in Moscow. The Bolsheviks crushed the revolt, outlawed the Left SRs, and arrested or expelled their leaders. Their suppression marked the final collapse of coalition rule and cleared the way for undisputed Bolshevik dominance, accelerating the transition to one-party control and deepening the use of repressive measures against former allies.
The Bolsheviks recognised the power of propaganda as a crucial tool for gaining support and discrediting opponents during a volatile and uncertain period. They rapidly seized control of printing presses, newspapers, and other media outlets to promote their message. Key Bolshevik slogans like “Peace, Land, Bread” and “All Power to the Soviets” were widely circulated to resonate with war-weary soldiers, land-hungry peasants, and discontented workers. During the Civil War, propaganda posters, pamphlets, and films glorified the Red Army and vilified the Whites as reactionary enemies of the people. Trotsky effectively used the Red Army’s armoured trains not just for troop movements but also to distribute leaflets and stage mobile agitprop performances. The Bolsheviks also censored opposing views, banning newspapers and publications from rival political factions. By creating a clear, emotionally charged narrative of revolutionary struggle, and controlling the information available to the public, they were able to build a unifying ideology and justify increasingly authoritarian actions.
War Communism, introduced during the Civil War (1918–1921), was both an economic strategy and a mechanism of political control. It involved the nationalisation of industry, centralised state control of production, and, most controversially, the forced requisitioning of grain from peasants to feed the Red Army and urban workers. Though economically disastrous, causing widespread famine, declining production, and depopulation of cities, War Communism played a critical role in asserting Bolshevik authority. It allowed the regime to exercise direct control over vital sectors of the economy and suppressed opposition by punishing resistance with severe repression. The policy also contributed to the growth of the Cheka and the institutionalisation of coercion as a means of governance. While it alienated peasants and led to uprisings, its repressive character helped the Bolsheviks survive during their most vulnerable years. In essence, War Communism demonstrated the regime’s willingness to sacrifice economic stability for political survival and to centralise power at any cost.
Between 1917 and 1924, the Communist Party transformed from a revolutionary movement into a highly centralised and hierarchical political organisation. Initially, the party operated with a degree of internal democracy, where debates and different factions were tolerated. However, after the Civil War, Lenin and the leadership became increasingly concerned about maintaining unity and control. At the 10th Party Congress in 1921, the Ban on Factions was introduced, forbidding organised groups within the party from voicing dissenting views. Decision-making became concentrated in the Politburo, a small elite group of party leaders, reducing the influence of broader party congresses. Simultaneously, the Orgburo managed appointments and oversaw internal operations, ensuring that key positions were filled with loyalists. The principle of democratic centralism was interpreted increasingly to mean that decisions made at the top were binding and not open to challenge. This transformation enabled the emergence of a party-state dictatorship, dominated by an inner circle and ultimately facilitating Stalin’s later rise.
Peasant resistance to Bolshevik policies, particularly grain requisitioning and the loss of land autonomy, was widespread and persistent throughout the period. While the Civil War provided cover for broad repression, unrest continued even after major fighting had ceased. The most significant rebellion was the Tambov Uprising (1920–1921), involving tens of thousands of peasants in armed resistance against the Soviet regime. The Bolsheviks responded with overwhelming military force, deploying the Red Army and Cheka, using artillery, and even poison gas to crush the rebellion. Villages were burned, hostages taken, and suspected rebels executed or deported. The brutality of this response highlighted the regime’s determination to retain control at all costs. These uprisings, combined with unrest among sailors (notably at Kronstadt), convinced the leadership to abandon War Communism and introduce the New Economic Policy (NEP). While the NEP softened some policies, repression of peasant political activity continued, and the state maintained tight control over rural life through surveillance and punishment.
Practice Questions
Explain why the Bolsheviks were able to consolidate their power in the years 1917–1924.
The Bolsheviks consolidated power through decisive measures like early decrees that won popular support and the establishment of Sovnarkom to centralise authority. By dissolving the Constituent Assembly, they removed parliamentary opposition, creating a one-party state. The Red Army, under Trotsky’s discipline and leadership, defeated fragmented White forces during the Civil War. The Red Terror and the murder of the Tsar eliminated real and symbolic rivals. Finally, bans on factions and suppression of dissent ensured unity within the Communist Party, transforming Bolshevik rule into a dictatorship by 1924.
How significant was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in strengthening Bolshevik control between 1917 and 1924?
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was highly significant as it ended Russia’s involvement in the First World War, allowing the Bolsheviks to redirect resources and focus on internal enemies. Although its harsh terms caused opposition, Lenin prioritised survival over territory. Ending the war helped the Bolsheviks defeat the Whites in the Civil War and justified suppressing dissent under the Red Terror. By securing peace, the Bolsheviks could consolidate their one-party rule without the distraction of foreign conflict, making the treaty a critical step in securing their power until 1924.
