This period saw major political transformation in Britain, shaped by reform, party realignment, and the expanding role of democratic institutions.
The Political System in 1851
Parliament and the Monarchy
Parliament remained the central legislative body, consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
The Commons had elected MPs, but representation was uneven and did not reflect population changes.
The Lords were unelected, hereditary peers, bishops, and life peers, wielding substantial influence.
The monarchy, under Queen Victoria, held limited formal powers due to constitutional changes, but retained significant ceremonial and moral authority.
The Electorate and Voting Qualifications
In 1851, the franchise was extremely restricted. Only about 20% of adult males could vote, based on property qualifications.
In counties, men needed to own freehold land worth 40 shillings annually.
In boroughs, eligibility was often based on ratepayer status and residency.
Women, the working class, and much of the middle class were excluded from political participation.
Elections were often subject to corruption, bribery, and intimidation, with no secret ballot until 1872.
Governmental Operation
The Prime Minister was appointed by the monarch, typically the leader of the majority party in the Commons.
Cabinet government was becoming more established, with policy decisions increasingly debated and made collectively.
Government departments grew in scope, responding to the expanding complexity of the state.
Party Politics and Realignment to 1867
Decline of the Peelites
The Peelites were former Conservatives who followed Robert Peel, splitting over the Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846).
They favoured free trade, administrative reform, and a moderate approach to governance.
By the mid-1850s, Peelites were politically isolated, their numbers dwindling, and many merged into the emerging Liberal Party.
Rise of the Liberal Party
Formed from a coalition of Whigs, Peelites, Radicals, and some Irish MPs.
Led initially by Lord John Russell and later Palmerston and Gladstone, the Liberals promoted:
Free trade and laissez-faire economics
Administrative and political reform
Religious toleration
Became a formidable force by the 1860s, advocating further franchise extension.
Consolidation of the Conservative Party
After internal division and the Peelites’ departure, the remaining Conservatives, led by Benjamin Disraeli, restructured the party.
The party focused on:
Defending tradition, monarchy, and the Church of England
Opposing radical change while accepting moderate reform for pragmatic reasons
Disraeli played a key role in rebuilding party discipline and appeal, especially among the working class after 1867.
Key Political Figures
Lord Palmerston
Dominated British politics as Prime Minister (1855–1858, 1859–1865).
Prioritised foreign policy, maintaining British prestige abroad.
Though seen as a Liberal, he was conservative domestically, resisting electoral reform and social legislation.
Lord John Russell
Played a leading role in passing the 1832 Reform Act and remained a key Liberal figure.
Served as Prime Minister (1846–1852, 1865–1866).
Advocated for gradual reform, but his second ministry faltered over failed attempts to extend the franchise.
Benjamin Disraeli
Conservative leader and Prime Minister (1868, 1874–1880).
Master of political strategy and rhetoric.
Introduced the Second Reform Act (1867), expanding the electorate to urban working men.
Emphasised “One Nation Conservatism”, aiming to bridge class divides.
William Ewart Gladstone
Liberal leader and Prime Minister (1868–1874, 1880–1885).
Advocated for moral and religious principle in politics.
Championed administrative efficiency, low taxes, and individual liberty.
Supported further democratic reforms and Irish self-governance.
The Second Reform Act, 1867
Background
Electoral reform pressure grew from urbanisation, middle-class influence, and working-class activism.
Russell’s failed 1866 bill led to mass protests, strengthening reformist demands.
Content and Changes
Disraeli’s 1867 Act:
Lowered property qualifications in boroughs, enfranchising many urban working men.
Doubled the electorate from 1.2 million to 2.5 million.
Redistributed seats, reducing over-representation of rural areas.
Created a more urban-centric voting base, particularly in industrial cities.
Political Consequences
Shifted political competition, making popular support crucial.
Parties began developing mass membership structures, newspapers, and local associations.
Tories sought to court working-class voters via “Tory Democracy”.
Liberal Party gained from new voters, but also faced growing expectations for further reforms.
Ideological Developments: Liberalism and Conservatism
Liberalism
Rooted in Enlightenment ideals of reason, progress, and liberty.
Emphasised:
Free trade
Civil liberties
Limited government
Education and meritocracy
Attracted the middle classes, urban professionals, Nonconformists, and industrialists.
Conservatism
Emphasised tradition, social hierarchy, and the moral order.
Supported the monarchy, the Church, and existing institutions.
Adapted under Disraeli to become more inclusive of the working class, using nationalism and imperial pride.
Gained support from landowners, Anglicans, and increasingly urban workers after 1867.
Britain by 1885: A Changing Landscape
Democracy and Representation
By 1885, the Third Reform Act (1884) had been passed, further expanding the franchise to rural working men.
The electorate grew to 5.5 million, covering around 60% of adult males.
The Redistribution Act (1885) made constituencies more equal, establishing the modern single-member system.
Despite reforms, women and many working-class men still lacked the vote.
Industrial and Global Power
Britain remained the world’s leading industrial nation:
Controlled over 30% of global manufacturing output.
Held dominance in coal, steel, textiles, and shipbuilding.
Global trade networks expanded, supported by the British Empire and strong naval supremacy.
London emerged as the financial capital of the world.
Class and Social Tensions
Increasing class consciousness, with the emergence of organised labour and working-class political identity.
Continued inequality despite reforms: wealth and property remained the basis of real influence.
Middle-class values of respectability, thrift, and self-help dominated political discourse.
Imperial Context
Empire was a source of prestige, resources, and political unity.
Disraeli famously declared Britain as an “imperial power”, purchasing shares in the Suez Canal (1875) and proclaiming Queen Victoria as Empress of India.
Imperialism became central to national identity and party rhetoric, particularly for Conservatives.
Key Developments
Parliament gradually became more representative, though the Lords retained power.
Voting qualifications were reformed to include a broader portion of the male population.
The Peelites’ decline enabled the formation of the Liberal Party, while Conservatives restructured under Disraeli.
The Second Reform Act (1867) was a turning point, doubling the electorate and changing party strategies.
Ideologies of Liberalism and Conservatism evolved, attracting different social bases.
By 1885, Britain had become a semi-democratic, industrial, and imperial superpower, yet still marked by exclusion and inequality.
FAQ
The Ballot Act of 1872 was a landmark piece of legislation that introduced the secret ballot in British elections. Prior to this, voting was conducted publicly, which left voters vulnerable to bribery, intimidation, and pressure from landlords or employers. The secret ballot transformed electoral behaviour by allowing individuals to vote without external influence, significantly reducing corruption in borough constituencies where these issues were rampant. While electoral malpractice did not disappear entirely—bribery and treating remained problems in some areas—it marked a clear step towards fairer elections. Politicians could no longer rely on coercion to secure votes and were forced to appeal more to public opinion and policy. Additionally, it encouraged the development of party manifestos and voter education to influence individual choice. The Act also helped diminish the role of local elites in controlling results and contributed to the nationalisation of political campaigning. It was a key foundation for the emergence of modern democracy.
William Gladstone’s reforms to the civil service, particularly during his first ministry (1868–1874), had a transformative effect on British governance. The Northcote–Trevelyan Report (1854), although initiated earlier, gained traction under Gladstone, who implemented reforms to make civil service appointments based on merit rather than patronage. Examinations were introduced for many posts, aiming to professionalise and depoliticise the bureaucracy. This limited the ability of MPs and peers to secure positions for allies and relatives, reducing political corruption and favouritism. The resulting civil service was more efficient and better qualified, contributing to improved administration of expanding state functions such as education and public health. It also reflected the broader Liberal commitment to individual merit, rational governance, and fiscal responsibility. Politically, it strengthened the state's capacity without increasing patronage powers, and symbolised the shift from a government of elites to one based increasingly on administrative expertise and competence.
The expansion of the press played a critical role in shaping political reform and public opinion between 1851 and 1886. With the abolition of the newspaper stamp duty in 1855 and paper duty in 1861, newspapers became more affordable and accessible to the growing literate population, particularly the middle and skilled working classes. National dailies like The Times, and later more radical publications such as the Daily News, helped create an informed public, capable of engaging with national politics. Editorials and political commentary brought parliamentary debates to wider audiences, while investigative journalism exposed electoral corruption, government inefficiencies, and social injustices. Newspapers also acted as platforms for political leaders to communicate directly with the public. Gladstone, in particular, was adept at using the press to shape his image and spread Liberal messages. The press fostered greater accountability and contributed to pressure for reform by amplifying public sentiment, making it harder for governments to ignore calls for change.
Political clubs and associations were crucial in developing effective party organisation during the period 1851–1886. Both Liberals and Conservatives established extensive local networks to mobilise support, especially following the expansion of the electorate. The National Union of Conservative and Constitutional Associations (founded 1867) and the National Liberal Federation (founded 1877) helped coordinate party activities across constituencies. These bodies provided organisational structure, distributed campaign materials, hosted rallies, and facilitated candidate selection. They enabled mass membership and allowed parties to build loyal voter bases by engaging communities directly. Additionally, they raised funds, trained canvassers, and ensured voter turnout during elections. This organisational transformation marked a shift from elite-dominated politics to a system increasingly reliant on grassroots engagement. Political clubs also contributed to a sense of identity and loyalty among supporters. Their growth reflected the professionalisation and modernisation of British politics and was essential in adapting to the needs of an expanding and diversifying electorate.
Religious affiliation significantly influenced political loyalties between 1851 and 1886, especially in relation to Nonconformists and the Church of England. Nonconformists—those belonging to Protestant denominations outside the Anglican Church, such as Methodists, Baptists, and Congregationalists—overwhelmingly supported the Liberal Party. They were drawn to the party’s advocacy for religious equality, educational reform, and the disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland (1869). Many opposed Conservative policies seen as favouring the Church of England and aristocratic privilege. In contrast, Anglicans, particularly those with High Church sympathies, tended to back the Conservative Party, which championed traditional institutions and the Church’s established status. Religious identity thus informed debates over education, church rates, and state funding, and shaped broader attitudes toward reform and social policy. The issue of religious pluralism also prompted legislative initiatives and voter mobilisation, especially during electoral contests in urban and industrial constituencies where religious diversity was more pronounced.
Practice Questions
‘The Second Reform Act of 1867 was the most significant development in British politics between 1851 and 1886.’ Assess the validity of this view.
The Second Reform Act of 1867 was undoubtedly a major milestone, expanding the franchise and reshaping political competition. However, its significance must be weighed against other developments, such as the ideological consolidation of the Liberal and Conservative parties and the emergence of political figures like Disraeli and Gladstone. While the Act doubled the electorate and triggered party modernisation, it was part of a broader continuum of reform culminating in the 1884 Reform Act and Redistribution Act. Therefore, although important, it was not singularly the most significant development within the wider context of political transformation during this period.
To what extent did political parties adapt to the changing electorate between 1851 and 1886?
Political parties significantly adapted to a growing and shifting electorate between 1851 and 1886. The Conservative Party under Disraeli embraced a broader appeal through 'Tory Democracy' after the 1867 Reform Act, while the Liberals increasingly organised local associations and mass campaigns. Both parties developed clearer ideological identities—Conservatives stressing tradition and empire, and Liberals promoting reform and individual liberty. Electoral strategies changed as parties engaged more directly with working-class voters, especially after 1867 and 1884. These adaptations were crucial for survival and success in a more democratic environment, though some exclusion of women and the poorest remained unresolved.
