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AQA A-Level History Study Notes

7.1.3 Social Reform and Movements, c1851–1886

Mid-Victorian Britain saw profound developments in social policy, education, labour rights, and poverty relief, shaped by reformist attitudes and growing state involvement.

The Concept of ‘Self-Help’ in Victorian Society

Samuel Smiles and the ‘Self-Help’ Ethos

The ideology of self-help became a cornerstone of Victorian moral and social thinking. Central to this was Samuel Smiles, whose influential 1859 book Self-Help emphasised:

  • Personal responsibility and moral discipline.

  • The belief that success was achievable through hard work, thrift, and perseverance, rather than reliance on state support.

  • Case studies of industrious men who rose from poverty through self-improvement.

This idea resonated deeply with the middle classes and liberal reformers, reinforcing values of individualism and limited government intervention. It provided a justification for minimal welfare provision and discouraged state relief of the poor.

Influence on Social Policy

  • Policymakers used the self-help philosophy to shape responses to poverty.

  • Voluntary societies and philanthropic organisations were encouraged to provide support, rather than direct state aid.

  • The Poor Law system continued to reflect the idea that poverty was often due to personal failings rather than systemic issues.

Early Trade Unionism

In the early 19th century, trade unions were limited and often illegal, regarded with suspicion by the state. However, by the 1850s, industrialisation and the rise of skilled labour fostered the growth of craft unions and friendly societies, which:

  • Provided mutual aid, including unemployment and sickness benefits.

  • Aimed to improve wages and working conditions through collective bargaining.

  • Were typically cautious, law-abiding, and moderate in their demands.

Legal Milestones and Struggles

  • 1867 Royal Commission on Trade Unions: Set up following union-led violence, it examined the legality of trade union actions. Two reports were published:

    • Majority Report supported employers’ criticisms and tighter restrictions.

    • Minority Report (including Frederic Harrison and Thomas Hughes) defended unions and recommended legalisation.

  • 1871 Trade Union Act (Gladstone’s Liberal government):

    • Gave legal recognition to trade unions.

    • Protected union funds from seizure in court.

    • Marked a turning point in the legitimisation of union activity.

  • Criminal Law Amendment Act 1871:

    • Passed simultaneously, it criminalised picketing and any form of coercion during strikes.

    • Limited the effectiveness of the Trade Union Act and was seen as a betrayal by unionists.

  • Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875 (Disraeli’s Conservative government):

    • Repealed the 1871 Criminal Law Amendment Act.

    • Legalised peaceful picketing.

    • Demonstrated the Conservatives’ tactical embrace of working-class concerns, known as Tory Democracy.

Trade Union Congress (TUC)

  • Formed in 1868, the TUC provided a national voice for trade unions.

  • Played a key role in lobbying for legal protections and legislative reform.

Expansion of Elementary Education

Need for Education Reform

Before 1870, elementary education was fragmented and provided by:

  • Voluntary organisations (e.g. Anglican National Society, Nonconformist British and Foreign Schools Society).

  • Charity schools and Sunday schools.

This system failed to reach large segments of the working-class population, particularly in urban areas. Industrial growth highlighted the need for a literate and numerate workforce.

1870 Education Act (Forster’s Act)

This landmark piece of legislation established the framework for national elementary education:

  • Allowed for the creation of school boards to build and manage schools where existing provision was inadequate.

  • Introduced compulsory attendance for children aged 5–13, although enforcement varied.

  • Promoted non-denominational education to avoid religious conflict.

  • Marked the first real state intervention in mass education in Britain.

Long-term Significance

  • Paved the way for universal elementary education.

  • Boosted literacy and numeracy, vital for an industrial economy and democratic participation.

  • Expanded the role of the central state in social provision.

  • Strengthened middle-class values of discipline and morality in working-class children.

Public Health and Working Conditions Legislation

Challenges to Public Health

Urbanisation and industrialisation in the mid-19th century created major public health issues:

  • Overcrowding, poor sanitation, and unclean water led to frequent cholera and typhoid outbreaks.

  • Life expectancy was significantly lower in industrial towns than in rural areas.

Public Health Acts

  • 1866 Sanitary Act: Made local authorities responsible for public health and gave them powers to inspect housing and enforce sanitary improvements.

  • 1875 Public Health Act (Conservative government):

    • Consolidated previous legislation into a coherent code.

    • Made local authorities responsible for drainage, water supply, and sewerage.

    • Compulsory appointment of medical officers of health.

    • Considered a milestone in urban public health policy.

Factory and Workplace Reform

Efforts to regulate working conditions were driven by:

  • Humanitarian concerns.

  • Pressure from social reformers such as Lord Shaftesbury.

  • Recognition of the link between health and productivity.

Key reforms included:

  • Factory Acts: Gradually reduced working hours and regulated conditions, especially for women and children.

  • 1874 Factory Act: Reduced the working week to 56.5 hours for women and children.

  • Mines Regulation Act 1872: Improved safety standards in mining.

These laws reflected growing awareness of employers’ social responsibility and the state’s role in safeguarding health and welfare.

Developments in Poor Law and Social Attitudes

The Poor Law in Mid-Victorian Britain

The 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act remained the backbone of welfare policy throughout the mid-Victorian period. Key features included:

  • The principle of less eligibility: conditions in workhouses had to be worse than the lowest paid labour.

  • Deterrence: the system was designed to discourage dependence on relief.

However, this system came under increasing criticism as urban poverty became more visible and widespread.

Adaptations and Reforms

Although no major legislative overhaul occurred between 1851–1886, notable developments included:

  • Gradual softening of the harshest workhouse conditions, especially for children and the elderly.

  • Outdoor relief remained common despite official discouragement.

  • Boards of Guardians often exercised discretion in applying the law, especially in times of economic hardship.

Government Attitudes to Poverty

Government policy reflected a tension between traditional laissez-faire liberalism and emerging ideas of state responsibility.

  • Influenced by the self-help ethos, many politicians believed poverty was due to moral failings.

  • However, the growing evidence of structural causes (e.g. slum housing, illness, unemployment) led to increasing calls for intervention.

  • The Charity Organisation Society (founded 1869) exemplified attempts to rationalise and improve charitable relief without encouraging dependence.

Philanthropy and Voluntary Initiatives

Private philanthropy continued to play a vital role, with influential figures and organisations involved in:

  • Model housing schemes (e.g. Peabody Trust).

  • Health and education initiatives.

  • The Salvation Army, founded in 1865, combining spiritual and material assistance to the urban poor.

These efforts often reinforced Victorian values of discipline, respectability, and moral improvement.

While state intervention remained limited by modern standards, the period witnessed a clear trajectory toward:

  • Greater recognition of urban social problems.

  • Increased legal protection for workers and unionists.

  • Expanded access to education.

  • Foundational public health infrastructure.

  • Gradual movement from self-help to state-supported welfare, laying groundwork for later reforms in the 20th century.

FAQ

The working-class press played a significant role in promoting social awareness and reformist sentiment among the labouring classes. Publications such as Reynolds’s Newspaper and the Beehive provided accessible political commentary, updates on union activity, and coverage of injustices facing workers and the poor. These newspapers gave a platform to voices often excluded from mainstream discourse, helping to build solidarity across different trades and regions. By spreading information about strikes, factory conditions, and reform campaigns, the press galvanised public opinion and pressured politicians to act. The rise of literacy due to expanding elementary education further widened the readership, increasing political consciousness. Radical journalists used the press to challenge government policy, criticise employers, and expose the limitations of laissez-faire ideology. As a result, the working-class press became a powerful informal vehicle of education and mobilisation, encouraging working people to demand better rights and conditions, and legitimising the efforts of trade unions and reformers.

Although women were barred from voting and holding public office, they played a vital and often overlooked role in social reform between 1851 and 1886. Middle- and upper-class women became active in philanthropic work, addressing issues like poverty, public health, and education through voluntary societies. Organisations such as the Ladies’ Sanitary Association and the Charity Organisation Society had large female memberships. Women also contributed to educational reform, campaigning for the inclusion of girls in the new school system and establishing schools for working-class children. Some, like Florence Nightingale and Octavia Hill, became nationally recognised for their work in healthcare and housing, respectively. Additionally, women were active in supporting working men’s rights by raising funds during strikes and speaking at union events. Although their influence was indirect, female reformers shaped attitudes toward state responsibility and welfare. Their activism laid the groundwork for the women’s suffrage and labour movements that would intensify later in the 19th century.

Religion had a profound impact on Victorian views of poverty and responsibility. The dominant Christian ethos, particularly from Anglican and Nonconformist traditions, framed poverty as a moral issue. Many believed that poverty resulted from idleness, intemperance, or moral failings, rather than structural problems. This belief aligned closely with the ‘self-help’ ideology, reinforcing the notion that the poor should reform themselves rather than rely on external aid. Evangelical Christians were particularly influential, promoting temperance, thrift, and moral improvement. However, religion also spurred charitable action—many churches and religious groups provided education, soup kitchens, and housing for the destitute. The Salvation Army, founded in 1865, combined religious conversion with practical aid, appealing to the urban poor. Religion thus had a dual effect: it justified limited state intervention while also motivating voluntary efforts. This tension between moral judgment and compassionate aid shaped the complex and often contradictory nature of social reform throughout the period.

Criticism of the Poor Law system intensified between 1851 and 1886, reflecting changing attitudes toward poverty and welfare. The main complaints targeted the harshness of the workhouse regime, particularly the principle of ‘less eligibility’, which ensured that workhouse conditions remained worse than the lowest paid labour. Critics argued that this punished the deserving poor—especially the elderly, sick, and children—who were unable to support themselves. The centralisation and rigidity of the system were also criticised, as local Boards of Guardians often lacked the flexibility to adapt relief to specific community needs. Public health reformers condemned the Poor Law’s neglect of sanitary conditions and overcrowding, while labour advocates highlighted its failure to address underemployment and low wages. Some MPs and social commentators began to acknowledge that poverty had structural causes, such as economic cycles and urban living conditions, which the Poor Law was ill-equipped to address. These critiques laid the groundwork for later welfare reforms.

Class played a critical role in shaping both the direction and limits of social reform in the mid-Victorian period. The middle classes, particularly Liberal reformers, saw themselves as moral guardians of society, responsible for ‘improving’ the working class. This perspective influenced the design of reforms to promote discipline, self-control, and industriousness—values associated with middle-class respectability. Elementary education, for example, was viewed as a means to instil obedience and social order, not just knowledge. Public health measures, such as sanitation reforms, were often justified not out of humanitarianism but because disease in slums posed a threat to wealthier areas. Moreover, class prejudice informed suspicion of trade unions and resistance to full democratic participation by the working class. Despite some concessions, the political elite largely prioritised reforms that maintained social stability and economic productivity. As a result, reforms were often top-down, partial, and framed in ways that upheld existing hierarchies rather than dismantling them.

Practice Questions

To what extent did the concept of ‘self-help’ shape government responses to social issues in the years 1851–1886?

The concept of ‘self-help’, popularised by Samuel Smiles, significantly shaped government responses to social issues by reinforcing a minimal-intervention approach. Politicians, particularly Liberals, promoted individual responsibility over state aid, limiting welfare expansion. While there were public health and education reforms, these were framed as enabling self-improvement rather than addressing structural poverty. The persistence of the Poor Law’s harsh principles and reliance on voluntary charity illustrates the continued dominance of self-help ideology. However, growing urban problems did prompt some increased intervention, suggesting that while influential, self-help did not fully determine policy across the period.

How important was the 1870 Education Act in addressing social inequality in mid-Victorian Britain?

The 1870 Education Act marked a vital step in addressing social inequality by providing a framework for universal elementary education. It reduced disparities by enabling working-class children to access schooling, promoting literacy and long-term opportunities. However, its impact was limited by inconsistent enforcement and continued reliance on voluntary provision. Attendance was not universally compulsory, and class-based differences in education persisted. Despite these limitations, the Act symbolised growing state concern with social reform and laid the foundation for broader educational access, making it a crucial, though initial, measure in tackling inequality in Victorian Britain.

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