Mary I’s reign marked a dramatic attempt to reverse England’s Protestant Reformation and restore full papal authority, rooted in deep personal Catholic convictions.
Mary’s Religious Aims and View of Royal Supremacy
Mary I was the first queen regnant of England and a devout Catholic raised under Catherine of Aragon. Her accession in 1553 was greeted with popular support, particularly among conservative and Catholic-leaning factions, offering her a strong mandate to restore traditional religion.
Primary religious goal: Restore Catholic doctrine, practices, and obedience to the Pope in Rome.
View of Royal Supremacy: Mary rejected her father’s break with Rome. She did not believe that monarchs should serve as heads of the Church. In contrast to the Henrician and Edwardian settlement, she sought to abandon the Royal Supremacy established by Henry VIII.
Her religious policy was motivated by personal conviction as much as by political expedience. She considered her reign a mission to reverse the spiritual damage caused by Protestant reforms.
Initial Challenges and Parliamentary Resistance
Mary faced immediate opposition in her attempts to restore Catholicism, particularly from the English Parliament, which had benefited significantly from the Reformation.
First Parliament (October–December 1553)
Although Parliament repealed Edward VI’s religious laws, it was reluctant to restore papal supremacy or undo the Royal Supremacy due to political and financial entanglements.
Many nobles and gentry had acquired former monastic lands, dissolved under Henry VIII and Edward VI. Reinstating papal authority raised fears that these lands would be reclaimed by the Church.
Mary faced constitutional constraints—despite her personal beliefs, she required parliamentary cooperation to pass religious legislation.
A compromise was reached: some Edwardian reforms were repealed, but Royal Supremacy remained intact, and papal authority was not yet restored.
Restoration of Heresy Laws
In 1554, after Mary’s marriage treaty with Philip of Spain, her government restored the medieval heresy laws.
These allowed for the prosecution and execution of Protestants who refused to recant, laying the groundwork for the Marian persecutions.
The reintroduction of these laws marked a turning point in the regime’s religious enforcement, showing Mary’s determination to suppress Protestantism not just by reform, but by force.
The Spanish Marriage
Mary’s marriage to Philip II of Spain (1554) was a strategic alliance that added further complexity to the restoration of Catholicism.
Many English subjects feared that Spanish influence would dominate national politics and religion.
Parliament and the people were suspicious that papal restoration was part of a broader move toward Spanish hegemony.
To alleviate concerns, Mary had to accept parliamentary restrictions, including:
Philip would not become king in his own right.
England would not be dragged into Spanish wars.
Nevertheless, the marriage undermined public support for Mary’s religious policies, even among potential Catholic sympathisers.
The Second Parliament and Return to Papal Supremacy
Mary convened a second Parliament in November 1554, which proved more compliant due to careful preparation and negotiation.
Cardinal Pole’s Role
Cardinal Reginald Pole, papal legate and Mary’s cousin, played a pivotal role in facilitating religious restoration.
In 1554, Pole returned from exile with full authority from Pope Julius III to reconcile England with the Roman Church.
Parliament agreed to repeal the Henrician religious legislation and formally re-establish papal supremacy.
The Act of Repeal (1554) nullified all legislation since 1529 that had undermined papal authority, effectively returning England to the status it held under the Church before the Break with Rome.
Resolution of Monastic Land Issue
A crucial issue was resolved when Pope Julius III agreed not to demand the return of former monastic lands.
This concession ensured support from the landed elite, who feared confiscation of their properties.
The Crown retained much of the ecclesiastical wealth, which was not redirected to the Church, limiting the restoration’s structural integrity.
Doctrinal Reassertion and Liturgical Reform
Mary’s government wasted little time reintroducing traditional Catholic doctrines and rituals, once papal authority had been restored.
Reintroduction of Catholic Sacraments
The Mass was reinstated with the doctrine of transubstantiation reaffirmed.
Seven sacraments were restored, replacing the Protestant reduction to two (baptism and the Eucharist).
Confession, extreme unction, and penance were once again part of religious life.
Latin replaced English in church services, and traditional ceremonies, vestments, and imagery were returned.
The Role of Bishops
Bishops played a key role in enforcing doctrinal uniformity. Many of the Marian bishops, such as Stephen Gardiner, promoted liturgical conservatism and discouraged deviation from Catholic norms.
Visitation campaigns were launched to ensure compliance with the new doctrine and the removal of heretical books and teachings.
Education and Catechism
To reinforce the Catholic message, Pole and Mary encouraged the use of catechisms and sermons, which clarified doctrine and corrected Protestant teachings.
Printed materials were used to disseminate orthodox teachings, although Protestant material continued to circulate clandestinely.
Mary and Cardinal Pole as Religious Reformers
Mary and Cardinal Pole were not merely intent on reversing Protestant reforms—they also aimed to reinvigorate the moral and educational standards of the English clergy.
Clerical Education
Pole aimed to create a better-educated priesthood, believing ignorance had allowed Protestant ideas to flourish.
Seminaries were proposed to train future clergy, although implementation was uneven and incomplete.
Pole encouraged bishops to organise diocesan synods and visitations to address local problems and raise standards.
Improving Clerical Discipline
The regime sought to enforce celibacy and moral conduct among the clergy.
Married Protestant priests were removed and replaced with celibate, orthodox clergy.
New rules were issued for church attendance and observance of feast days to encourage piety among the laity.
Bishops were expected to lead by example and supervise their parishes more actively.
Challenges in Implementation
Many parish churches were in poor condition, and rebuilding the physical and spiritual structure of the Church required resources that were not always available.
There was a shortage of trained and committed clergy, especially in areas that had been strongly Protestant under Edward VI.
Limits of the Restoration
Despite Mary and Pole’s efforts, the Catholic restoration faced significant obstacles, and its legacy proved short-lived.
Pockets of Protestantism
Protestantism had taken hold in London, East Anglia, and parts of the southeast, where underground churches continued to operate.
Protestant writings and preachers maintained influence through clandestine networks and foreign exile communities in places like Geneva and Frankfurt.
Mary’s failure to convert the next generation of leaders meant Protestantism remained viable and ready to return.
Inadequate Clerical Infrastructure
Mary’s reign lasted only five years, insufficient time to rebuild the robust Catholic structures that had existed before the Reformation.
Efforts to improve clerical education and moral standards were limited in scope and largely confined to higher ecclesiastical levels.
Parish priests remained poorly educated in many regions, and popular piety varied greatly.
The absence of a national seminary system, which was still in development, meant few young men entered the priesthood during Mary’s reign.
Reliance on Repression
The reliance on persecution (detailed further in the following subsubtopic) damaged the regime’s religious credibility and alienated many potential supporters.
Mary’s inability to foster a popular and voluntary return to Catholicism left her reforms vulnerable to reversal.
No Lasting Legacy
Mary’s death in 1558 and the accession of Elizabeth I marked the swift end of the Marian restoration.
Within months, the Elizabethan Religious Settlement re-established Protestantism, and most of Mary’s reforms were repealed.
The lack of deep institutional change ensured the Catholic revival did not outlive its creators.
FAQ
Cardinal Reginald Pole’s personal background and theological convictions were central to the shape and tone of the Marian restoration. A member of the Plantagenet line and a staunch Catholic, Pole had lived in exile during the Henrician and Edwardian reforms and had refused to support the Royal Supremacy, even at the cost of his political safety. Influenced by continental Catholic humanism, Pole believed in internal reform of the Church alongside doctrinal restoration. He saw clerical ignorance and lax discipline as major reasons for the rise of Protestantism and thus pushed for educational and spiritual renewal among the clergy. Pole’s theological approach was more conciliatory than punitive, favouring catechesis and persuasion over persecution. As papal legate and later Archbishop of Canterbury, he oversaw efforts to rebuild ecclesiastical institutions, reinstate traditional doctrines, and improve pastoral care. His personal integrity and religious idealism lent moral credibility to the Catholic revival, even if practical outcomes remained limited.
Responses to the Marian restoration at the local level were diverse and often reflected regional religious leanings and social dynamics. In conservative areas like the North and parts of the West Country, traditional Catholic rituals and feast days were welcomed back with enthusiasm. Parishioners often assisted in restoring altars, statues, and images that had been removed under Edward VI. However, in regions with stronger Protestant traditions—particularly London, East Anglia, and the Thames Valley—resistance was more evident. Some churches were slow to reinstate Catholic ceremonies, and there were complaints about the costs of refurbishing altars and purchasing new liturgical items. Secret Protestant worship, known as “Nicodemism,” persisted, with some parishioners outwardly conforming while privately maintaining evangelical beliefs. Attendance at Mass was generally high, due in part to legal obligation, but conformity did not necessarily equate to genuine conviction. Overall, while public displays of Catholicism were restored, the depth of religious sentiment varied widely.
Despite Mary I’s personal desire to restore the pre-Reformation religious landscape, including monasticism, the Crown faced significant practical and political barriers that made this infeasible. A key issue was the redistribution of monastic lands during the Dissolution under Henry VIII. By Mary’s reign, these properties were owned by influential nobles and gentry who had integrated the holdings into their wealth and status. Attempting to reclaim or restore these lands to the Church risked alienating a vital political constituency whose support Mary required to govern effectively. Even the papacy recognised this difficulty; Pope Julius III and Cardinal Pole agreed to a pragmatic solution that did not demand the return of monastic properties. Additionally, monastic life had been severely disrupted for over two decades, and re-establishing entire orders from scratch—especially in a short and contested reign—was logistically unrealistic. As a result, while some symbolic gestures were made, full-scale monastic restoration was avoided for political expediency.
Mary I’s restoration of papal authority was broadly welcomed by foreign Catholic powers, particularly the Papacy and Habsburg Spain. The Pope, represented by Cardinal Pole, saw England’s reconciliation with Rome as a major diplomatic and religious victory. However, the relationship was not without tension. The papacy was initially cautious, particularly under Julius III, who had to balance the English situation with broader European politics. After Paul IV became pope in 1555, relations became strained; he distrusted the Habsburgs, including Philip II, and by extension viewed Mary’s alliance with Spain unfavourably. Nonetheless, there was no open opposition to her restoration efforts. Spain, as Mary’s key ally and the source of her consort Philip II, strongly supported the Catholic revival. However, Philip was politically cautious in England, aware of the widespread suspicion toward foreign, especially Spanish, influence. France, a Catholic power but political rival of Spain, observed events with interest but offered no direct interference or support.
The failure to entrench papal authority under Mary I had significant long-term consequences for the religious and political trajectory of England. Most immediately, it paved the way for the rapid re-establishment of Protestantism under Elizabeth I. With the death of Mary in 1558 and Pole shortly after, there was no coherent or institutional continuity for the Catholic reforms. The lack of a robust clerical infrastructure meant Elizabeth faced little resistance in reinstating the Royal Supremacy and Protestant doctrine through the 1559 Settlement. More broadly, Mary’s reliance on persecution and foreign alliances tainted Catholicism’s reputation in England, associating it with repression and foreign domination. This contributed to entrenched anti-Catholic sentiment that would persist into the seventeenth century. The Marian failure also revealed the importance of institutional reform and public engagement in religious change; mere legal enforcement proved insufficient without widespread clerical and lay support. As a result, Protestantism gained a stronger foothold during Elizabeth’s reign.
Practice Questions
To what extent did Mary I succeed in restoring papal authority in England during the years 1553 to 1558?
Mary I achieved significant legal and ceremonial progress in restoring papal authority, particularly through the 1554 Act of Repeal and the work of Cardinal Pole. Papal supremacy was reinstated, heresy laws revived, and traditional Catholic doctrine reintroduced. However, her reforms faced parliamentary resistance, limited popular enthusiasm, and lacked lasting clerical infrastructure. Protestantism endured in key regions, and her religious policies were reversed under Elizabeth I. Therefore, while Mary made notable short-term gains, her restoration of papal authority was limited in depth and longevity, suggesting her success was significant but ultimately unsustainable.
Explain why Mary I faced difficulties in restoring Catholicism and papal supremacy between 1553 and 1558.
Mary I’s restoration faced several challenges, including political resistance from a Parliament reluctant to reverse land grants made during the Reformation. The restoration of heresy laws and the Spanish marriage provoked fears of foreign influence, undermining public support. Although Cardinal Pole facilitated reconciliation with Rome, enforcement of reforms was hampered by a lack of trained clergy and residual Protestantism, particularly in urban areas. Furthermore, the absence of lasting ecclesiastical structures and Mary’s short reign limited the long-term impact of her reforms. These factors combined to obstruct a smooth and permanent return to papal supremacy.
