Elizabeth I's Religious Settlement aimed to establish a stable and inclusive national Church, navigating deep religious divisions and restoring royal authority over religion.
Divisions at Elizabeth’s Accession
Elizabeth inherited a kingdom divided by decades of religious upheaval. The situation in 1558 was precarious:
Catholics still formed a significant portion of the population. Many had quietly accepted Marian restoration of Catholicism and hoped for continuity.
Protestant émigrés, who had fled abroad during Mary I’s reign to avoid persecution, returned with radical Calvinist ideas from places like Geneva and Zurich. They expected further reform and an uncompromising Protestant Church.
Moderate Protestants desired a return to Edwardian reforms but were willing to compromise for the sake of stability.
Radical Protestants (later called Puritans) pushed for a more thorough purge of Catholic practices and a move towards a presbyterian structure rather than episcopal hierarchy.
Elizabeth’s challenge was to navigate these tensions to secure national unity, avoid alienating powerful Catholic monarchies, and reinforce royal control.
Elizabeth’s Religious Beliefs and Political Aims
Elizabeth’s personal religious views were Protestant, but she was not a radical. Her key concerns were:
Stability and unity: She prioritised national cohesion over religious zeal.
Royal control: Elizabeth insisted on retaining supremacy over the Church and avoided empowering radical Protestant factions.
Cautious Protestantism: She preferred a moderate doctrine that could accommodate a wide range of religious opinions.
Elizabeth aimed to avoid religious extremism. Her pragmatic approach was designed to appease moderate Catholics while reassuring Protestants that the Reformation would continue, albeit at a controlled pace.
The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity (1559)
The 1559 Religious Settlement was enacted through two major pieces of legislation: the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity. These re-established the Church of England and set its structure and doctrine.
Act of Supremacy (1559)
Restored Royal Supremacy: Declared Elizabeth as “Supreme Governor” of the Church of England, a compromise title that avoided the more contentious “Supreme Head” used by Henry VIII.
Required oath of allegiance from clergy and royal officials; refusal could lead to removal from office.
Repealed Mary I’s Heresy Laws and Papal legislation, confirming England’s break from Rome.
This act was deliberately ambiguous, designed to minimise resistance while asserting state control over the Church.
Act of Uniformity (1559)
Imposed uniform religious worship throughout England.
Mandated the use of the Book of Common Prayer (1559 edition) in all church services.
Attendance at Anglican services was compulsory; recusants (non-attenders) faced fines.
Allowed some degree of ceremonial flexibility, permitting the continued use of ornaments and vestments that would appease traditionalists.
This act was more contentious, facing significant resistance in the House of Lords, particularly from the Lords Spiritual (bishops loyal to Rome), but passed narrowly with the support of royal pressure and lay peers.
The 1559 Book of Common Prayer
The new Book of Common Prayer was a hybrid of the 1549 and 1552 versions. It included:
Ambiguous Eucharistic formula: Combined Catholic and Protestant phrases to allow multiple interpretations:
“The body of our Lord Jesus Christ…” (Catholic) alongside
“…take and eat this in remembrance…” (Protestant).
Vernacular services: Maintained use of English in worship, making it accessible to the population.
Omission of explicitly anti-Catholic elements: Removed denunciations of the Pope or transubstantiation to avoid alienating conservative factions.
Flexible ceremonial guidelines: Allowed retention of certain traditional practices, such as kneeling for communion and clerical vestments.
These compromises helped appease moderate Catholics and traditional Protestants, though hardline reformers were disappointed by the lack of a decisive Protestant overhaul.
Role of Parliament and Bishops
Parliament
Elizabeth relied on the House of Commons, which was largely sympathetic to Protestant reform, to pass the Settlement.
The House of Lords, dominated by Catholic bishops and conservative nobles, posed significant resistance, especially to the Uniformity Bill.
To counter this, Elizabeth:
Imprisoned or excluded key bishops from Parliament.
Relied on her court allies to secure majority support.
Created new Protestant bishops to replace Marian clergy who refused the oath of supremacy.
Bishops
Most Marian bishops opposed the Settlement and refused the oath, resulting in their deprivation and replacement.
Their refusal gave Elizabeth the opportunity to appoint a new bench of Protestant clergy sympathetic to her reforms.
However, some of the new bishops, including Matthew Parker (Archbishop of Canterbury), were also moderates, selected for their loyalty and obedience rather than radicalism.
This reshaping of the episcopate ensured tighter royal control over religious policy, though tensions with more radical Protestants would continue to grow.
Measures for Consolidation
Following the initial legislation, Elizabeth’s government implemented various policies to enforce and consolidate the Settlement.
Royal Visitations
From summer 1559, commissions of royal visitors were sent across the country to enforce compliance.
Their tasks included:
Ensuring the use of the Book of Common Prayer.
Removing images and relics associated with Catholic worship.
Monitoring clergy and laity for signs of nonconformity.
The Injunctions of 1559 set out rules for clergy behaviour, requiring:
Removal of "superstitious" objects.
Use of English Bibles.
Instruction in the Ten Commandments and catechism.
These visitations formed the backbone of enforcement for the Settlement, ensuring that central policy reached the parishes.
Enforcement of Uniformity
Attendance at Church was monitored, with recusancy fines imposed on those absent without good reason.
Parish clergy had to preach obedience to the Crown and the Settlement.
Church courts and civil authorities were used to discipline dissenters, although early enforcement was relatively lenient.
This early period of enforcement was firm but flexible, seeking compliance through pressure rather than persecution.
Suppression of Dissent
Elizabeth avoided widespread persecution but was not tolerant of organised opposition. Measures included:
Censorship of printed materials: To prevent circulation of radical or Catholic texts.
Surveillance of suspected dissidents, especially among former Marian clergy and foreign agents.
Removal of non-compliant clergy: Priests who refused to conform were dismissed and, in some cases, imprisoned.
However, Elizabeth sought outward conformity, tolerating private dissent as long as public obedience was maintained. This “don’t ask, don’t tell” approach allowed many Catholics to remain loyal subjects while practising their faith in private.
By c1570, Elizabeth had successfully established the foundations of a national Church under her control. The Settlement’s moderation and ambiguity allowed a degree of religious pluralism, but cracks were already forming:
Catholic opposition remained underground but would become emboldened following events like the arrival of Mary Queen of Scots and the Papal excommunication in 1570.
Puritan dissatisfaction with the conservative nature of the Settlement would lead to increasing agitation within the Church.
Nonetheless, between 1559 and c1570, the Elizabethan Religious Settlement achieved broad conformity, limited conflict, and restored royal authority over the Church of England.
FAQ
Elizabeth I’s decision to adopt the title "Supreme Governor" instead of "Supreme Head" of the Church of England was a calculated political and religious compromise. The title "Supreme Head," used by her father Henry VIII, had strong associations with rejecting papal authority and asserting direct monarchical control over religious doctrine. However, as a woman, Elizabeth faced additional scrutiny—many believed that a female monarch could not assume spiritual leadership. Choosing "Supreme Governor" mitigated objections from conservative factions who were uneasy about a woman leading the Church and also provided enough ambiguity to pacify moderate Catholics who might still privately acknowledge papal authority. Furthermore, this softer title helped reduce international tensions, particularly with Catholic powers like Spain and France, by appearing less provocative. The title reflected Elizabeth’s broader strategy of outward conformity combined with doctrinal flexibility. It allowed her to maintain control without alienating too many supporters or provoking immediate foreign or domestic resistance.
Elizabeth’s religious policies placed significant demands on the local clergy, many of whom had been ordained under Mary I and were committed Catholics. With the 1559 Settlement, clergy were required to take the Oath of Supremacy and use the new Book of Common Prayer in all services. Those who refused were deprived of their positions and replaced, creating a substantial clerical turnover. To enforce compliance, Royal Commissioners visited parishes to ensure that altars were removed, religious imagery was taken down, and services followed the mandated format. The Injunctions of 1559 also required clergy to preach in English, maintain a copy of the English Bible, and instruct parishioners in Protestant doctrine. Many rural priests lacked education and struggled with these expectations, leading to uneven implementation. Despite efforts to standardise worship, regional variation persisted. In areas with strong Catholic traditions, outward conformity masked internal resistance, with some clergy conducting private Catholic rites. The Settlement's effect was thus transformative but inconsistent.
The Elizabethan Injunctions of 1559 were essential in translating the broad principles of the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity into practical regulations for everyday religious life. Issued by Royal Commissioners during Visitations, the Injunctions instructed clergy and laity on how to implement the new Settlement. They mandated the removal of all images, relics, and “superstitious” objects from churches, reinforcing Protestant iconoclasm. Clergy were required to preach in English, promote royal supremacy in their sermons, and discourage pilgrimages and the veneration of saints. They had to keep accurate records of baptisms, marriages, and burials, and ensure that every church had an English Bible and a copy of Erasmus’s Paraphrases. Preachers needed a bishop’s licence, limiting unregulated teachings. The Injunctions also introduced regulations on clerical conduct and appearance, including rules on marriage and dress. Though enforcement varied regionally, the Injunctions were crucial for establishing conformity and extending central control into local religious practice.
Initially, foreign powers adopted a cautious approach to Elizabeth’s Religious Settlement. Spain, under Philip II, was surprisingly restrained. Though Catholic, Philip had been married to Mary I and saw Elizabeth’s rule as preferable to French influence through Mary, Queen of Scots. He hoped Elizabeth might reconsider her Protestantism or marry into a Catholic alliance. Therefore, Spain delayed direct opposition, avoiding immediate conflict. France, embroiled in its own internal religious wars, was also reluctant to confront Elizabeth outright. The Papacy did not excommunicate Elizabeth until 1570, which reflected this period of diplomatic hesitation. This lack of immediate foreign reaction allowed Elizabeth the breathing space to implement her Settlement with less risk of international intervention. It also reinforced her cautious policy, as she avoided overt persecution of Catholics in order to maintain this uneasy peace. Only as religious tensions grew, and with the arrival of Mary Stuart and growing Catholic plots, did foreign opposition intensify.
The deliberate lack of doctrinal clarity in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement was central to its initial success. By avoiding rigid theological definitions, especially on contentious issues like the Eucharist or the nature of the Church, Elizabeth ensured that both moderate Protestants and conformist Catholics could interpret the Church’s teachings in ways compatible with their beliefs. The 1559 Book of Common Prayer, for example, included ambiguous phrasing that allowed for both a spiritual and sacramental understanding of communion. This vagueness was strategic: it reduced the likelihood of rebellion from either side by focusing on uniformity of worship rather than uniformity of belief. Clergy and laypeople were not expected to fully internalise Protestant doctrine, only to outwardly comply with state-sanctioned religious practice. This created an inclusive Church that prioritised order and obedience over doctrinal purity. However, the lack of clarity also planted the seeds for future conflict, as both Catholics and Puritans eventually pushed for greater definition and reform.
Practice Questions
To what extent was Elizabeth I’s Religious Settlement (1559) successful in establishing religious uniformity by 1570?
Elizabeth’s Religious Settlement was partially successful in achieving uniformity. The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity, along with the new Book of Common Prayer, created a national Church structure that gained outward conformity. Royal Visitations and fines ensured compliance in most parishes. However, the Settlement’s compromises left both Catholics and radical Protestants dissatisfied. Private Catholic worship persisted, and growing Puritan resistance indicated limitations. The Settlement avoided widespread unrest, but uniformity was more surface-level than doctrinal. By 1570, divisions remained, and the Papal excommunication would soon challenge the fragile consensus. Thus, success was more political than genuinely religious.
Explain why Elizabeth chose a moderate religious settlement in 1559.
Elizabeth opted for moderation to preserve political stability and avoid alienating powerful factions. England was deeply divided between Catholics, moderate Protestants, and returning radicals. A radical settlement risked foreign hostility, especially from Spain and France, and internal rebellion. Elizabeth’s personal beliefs leaned Protestant, but her pragmatism favoured compromise. The ambiguous Book of Common Prayer and title "Supreme Governor" reflect this cautious approach. Parliamentary resistance from Catholic bishops and Lords Spiritual necessitated negotiation. The moderate settlement allowed for wide compliance without persecution, reinforcing royal control and minimising unrest. Elizabeth prioritised unity and authority over theological purity.
